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witnessed　a　general　revival　of　the　scholastic

zeal；　poets；　orators；　novelists；　and　writers　increased

in　numbers　and　grew　in　favour；　savants；　philosophers；

chemists　and　alchemists；　mathematicians

and　astronomers；　travellers　and　naturalists；　were

awakened；　so　to　speak；　by　the　life…giving　breath　of

the　Middle　Ages；　and　great　scientific　discoveries

and　admirable　works　on　every　imaginable　subject

showed　that　the　genius　of　modern　society　was　not

a　whit　inferior　to　that　of　antiquity。　Printing；　was

invented；　and　with　that　brilliant　discovery；　the　Middle

Ages；　which　had　accomplished　their　work　of

social　renovation；　made　way　for　the　Renaissance；

which　scattered　abroad　in　profusion　the　prolific　and

brilliant　creations　of　Art；　Science；　and　Literature。〃



This　author　to　some　extent　discredits　himself；　however；

p。　455；　where　he　remarks：



〃Long　before　the　invasions　of　the　Barbarians

the　histories　written　by　Greek　and　Latin　authors

concerning　the　annals　of　the　ancient　peoples　had

been　falling　into　disfavor。　Even　the　best　of　them

were　little　read；　for　the　Christians　felt　but　slight

interest　in　these　pagan　narratives；　and　that　is　why

works　relating　to　the　history　of　antiquity　were　already

so　scarce。〃



Another　authority　writing　on　the　same　subject　discusses

it　from　a　different　standpoint；　remarking：



〃As　in　the　middle　ages　invention　busied　itself

with　instruments　of　torture；　and　as　in　our　days　it

is　taken　up　almost　as　much　with　the　destructive　engines

of　war　as　with　the　productive　arts　of　peace；

so　in　those　early　ages　it　applied　itself　to　the　fabrication

of　idols；　to　the　mechanism　and　theatrical

contrivances　for　mysteries　and　religious　ceremonies。

There　was　then　no　desire　to　communicate

discoveries；　science　was　a　sort　of　freemasonry；

and　silence　was　effectually　secured　by　priestly

anathemas；　men　of　science　were　as　jealous　of　one

another　as　they　were　of　all　other　classes　of　society。

If　we　wish　to　form　a　clear　picture　of　this　earliest

stage　of　civilization；　an　age　which　represents　at

once　the　naivete　of　childhood　and　the　suspicious

reticence　of　senility；　we　must　turn　our　eyes　to　the

priest；　on　the　one　hand；　claiming　as　his　own　all　art

and　science；　and　commanding　respect　by　his　contemptuous

silence；　and；　on　the　other　hand；　to　the

mechanic　plying　the　loom；　extracting　the　Tyrian

dye；　practising　chemistry；　though　ignorant　of　its

very　name；　despised　and　oppressed；　and　only　tolerated

when　he　furnished　Religion　with　her　trappings

or　War　with　arms。　Thus　the　growth　of

chemistry　was　slow；　and　by　reason　of　its　backwardness

it　was　longer　than　any　other　art　in　ridding

itself　of　the　leading…strings　of　magic　and

astrology。　Practical　discoveries　must　have　been

made　many　times　without　science　acquiring　thereby

any　new　fact。　For　to　prevent　a　new　discovery　from

being　lost　there　must　be　such　a　combination　of

favorable　circumstances　as　was　rare　in　that　age　and

for　many　succeeding　ages。　There　must　be　publicity；

and　publicity　is　of　quite　recent　growth；　the

application　of　the　discovery　must　be　not　only　possible

but　obvious；　as　satisfying　some　want。　But

wants　are　only　felt　as　civilization　progresses。　Nor

is　that　all；　for　a　practical　discovery　to　become　a

scientific　fact　it　must　serve　to　demonstrate　the　error

of　one　hypothesis；　and　to　suggest　a　new　one；　better

fitted　for　the　synthesis　of　existing　facts。　But

（some）　old　beliefs　are　proverbially　obstinate　and

virulent　in　their　opposition　to　newer　and　truer

theories　which　are　destined　to　eject　and　replace

them。　To　sum　up；　even　in　our　own　day；　chemistry

rests　on　a　less　sound　basis　than　either　physics；　which

had　the　advantage　of　originating　as　late　as　the　17th

century；　or　astronomy；　which　dates　from　the　time


when　the　Chaldean　shepherd　had　sufficiently　provided

for　his　daily　wants　to　find　leisure　for　gazing

into　the　starry　Heavens。〃



The　observations　of　a　still　earlier　commentator　are　of

the　same　general　nature。　He　says：



〃In　the　first　ages　of　Christianity；　when　the

fathers　of　the　Church；　the　Jews；　and　the　Heathen

philosophers　were　so　warmly　engaged　in　controversy；

there　is　reason　to　believe　that　pious　frauds

were　not　uncommon：　and　that　when　one　party　suspected

forgeries；　instead　of　an　attempt　at　confutation；

which　might　have　been　difficult；　they　had

recourse　perhaps　to　a　countermine：　and　either　invented

altogether；　or　eked　out　some　obscure　traditional

scraps　by　the　embellishments　of　fancy。

When　we　consider；　amongst　many　literary　impositions

of　later　times；　that　Psalmanazar's　history　of

Formosa　was；　even　in　this　enlightened　age　and

country　（England；　about　1735）；　considered　by　our

most　learned　men　as　unquestionably　authentic；　till

the　confession　of　the　author　discovered　the　secret；

I　think　it　is　not　difficult　to　conceive　how　forgeries

of　remote　events；　before　the　invention　of　printing

and　the　general　diffusion　of　knowledge　might　gain

an　authority；　and　especially　with　the　zealous；　hardly

inferior　to　that　of　the　most　genuine　history。〃



De　Vinne；　however；　in　his　〃Invention　of　Printing；〃

New　York；　1878；　best　explains　the　status　quo　of　those

times；　relative　not　only　to　book　（MSS。）　making；　and

methods　of　circulation；　but　the　causes　which　led　up　to

their　eventual　disappearance　and　the　literary　darkness

which　ensued。　His　remarks　are　so　pertinent

that　they　are　quoted　at　length：



〃The　civilization　of　ancient　Rome　did　not　require

printing。　If　all　the　processes　of　typography

had　been　revealed　to　its　scholars　the　art　would　not

have　been　used。　The　wants　of　readers　and　writers

were　abundantly　supplied　by　the　pen。　Papyrus

paper　was　cheap；　and　scribes　were　numerous；　Rome

had　more　booksellers　than　it　needed；　and　books

were　made　faster　than　they　could　be　sold。　The

professional　scribes　were　educated　slaves；　who；　fed

and　clothed　at　nominal　expense；　and　organized　under

the　direction　of　wealthy　publishers；　were　made

so　efficient　in　the　production　of　books；　that　typography；

in　an　open　competition；　could　have　offered　few　advantages。



〃Our　knowledge　of　the　Roman　organization　of

labor　in　the　field　of　bookmaking　is　not　as　precise　as

could　be　wished；　but　the　frequent　notices　of　books；

copyists　and　publishers；　made　by　many　authors

during　the　first　century；　teach　us　that　books

were　plentiful。　Horace；　the　elegant　and　fastidious

man　of　letters；　complained　that　his　books　were　too

common；　and　that　they　were　sometimes　found　in

the　hands　of　vulgar　snobs　for　whose　entertainment

they　were　not　written。　Martial；　the　jovial　man　of

the　world；　boasted　that　his　books　of　stinging　epigrams

were　to　be　found　in　everybody's　hands　or

pockets。　Books　were　read　not　only　in　the　libraries；

but　at　the　baths；　in　the　porticoes　of　houses；　at

private　dinners　and　in　mixed　assemblies。　The

business　of　bookmaking　was　practised　by　too　many

people；　and　some　were　incompetent。　Lucian；　who

had　a　keen　perception　of　pretense　in　every　form；

ridicules　the　publishers　as　ignoramuses。　Strabo；

who　probably　wrote　illegibly；　says　that　the　books

of　booksellers　were　incorrect。



〃The　price　of　books　made　by　slave　labor　was

necessarily　low。　Martial　says　that　his　first　book　of

epigrams　was　sold　in　plain　binding　for　six　sesterces；

about　twenty…four　cents　of　American　money；　the

same　book　in　sumptuous　binding　was　valued　at　five

denarii；　about　eighty　cents。　He　subsequently　complained

that　his　thirteenth　book　was　sold　for　only

four　sesterces；　about　sixteen　cents。　He　frankly

admits　that　half　of　this　sum　was　profit；　but　intimates；

somewhat　ungraciously；　that　the　publisher　Tryphon

gave　him　too　small　a　share。　Of　the　merits　of　this

old　disagreement　between　the　author　and　publisher

we　have　not　enough　of　facts　to　justify　an　opinion。

We　learn　that　some　publishers；　like　Tryphon　and

the　brothers　Sosii；　acquired　wealth；　but　there　are

many　indications　that　publishing　was　then；　as　it　is

now；　one　of　the　most　speculative　kinds　of　business。

One　writer　chuckles　over　the　unkind　fate　that　sent

so　many　of　the　unsold　books　of　rival　authors　from

the　warehouses　of　the　publisher；　to　the　shops　of

grocers　and　bakers；　where　they　were　used　to　wrap

up　pastry　and　spices；　another　writer　says　that　the

unsold　stock　of　a　bookseller　was　sometimes　bought

by　butchers　and　trunk　makers。



〃The　Romans　not　only　had　plenty　of　books　but

they　had　a　manuscript　daily　newspaper；　the　Acta

Diurna；　which　seems　to　have　been　a　record　of　the

proceedings　of　the　senate。　We　do　not　know　how

it　was　written；　nor　how　it　was　published；　but　it

was　frequently　mentioned　by　contemporary　writers

as　the　regular　official　medium　for　transmitting

intelligence。　It　was　sent　to　subscribers　in　distant

cities；　and　was；　sometimes；　read　to　an　assembled

army。　Cicero　mentions　the　Acta　as　a　sheet　in

which　he　expected　to　find　the　city　news　and　gossip

about　marriages　and　divorces。



〃With　the　decline　of　power　in　the　Roman　empire

came　the　decline　of