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author　of　the　famous　sophism　against　motion。　'If

any　body　be　moved；　it　is　moved　in　the　place　where

it　is；　or　in　a　place　where　it　is　not；　for　nothing　can

act　or　suffer　where　it　is　not；　and　therefore　there　is

no　such　thing　as　motion。'　〃



By　Astle：



〃The　General　History　of　Polybius　originally

contained　forty　books；　but　the　first　five　only；　with

some　extracts　or　fragments；　are　transmitted　to　us。〃



By　Anthon：



〃Polybius；　an　eminent　Greek　historian；　born

about；　B。　C。　203。　Polybius　gave　to　the　world　various

historical　writings；　which　are　entirely　lost　with

the　exception　of　his　General　History。　It　embraced

a　period　of　53　years。　Of　the　forty　books　which　it

originally　comprehended；　time　has　spared　only　the

first　five　entire。　Of　the　rest；　as　far　as　the　seventeenth；

we　have　merely　fragments　though　of　considerable

size。　Of　the　remaining　books　we　have

nothing　left　except　what　is　found　in　two　merger

abridgments　which　the　Emperor　Constantine　Porphyrogenitus；

in　the　tenth　century　caused　to　be

made　of　the　whole　work。〃



From　Astle：



〃Dionysius　Halicarnassensis　wrote　twenty　books

of　Roman　antiquities；　extending　from　the　siege　of

Troy；　to　the　Punic　war　A。　U。　C。　488；　but　only

eleven　of　them　are　now　remaining；　which　reach　no

further　than　the　year　of　Rome　312。〃



From　Anthon：



〃He　was　born　in　the　first　century　B。　C。　His

principal　work　was　'Roman　Antiquities。'　It　originally

consisted　of　twenty　books；　of　which　the　first

ten　remain　entire。　Dionysius　wrote　for　the　Greeks；

and　his　object　was　to　relieve　them　from　the　mortification

which　they　felt　at　being　conquered　by　a　race

of　barbarians；　as　they　considered　the　Romans　to　be。

And　this　he　endeavored　to　effect　by　twisting　and

forging　testimonies；　and　botching　up　the　old　legends；

so　as　to　make　out　a　prima　facie　proof　of　the　Greek

origin　of　the　city　of　Rome。　Valuable　additions

were　made　in　1816；　by　Mai；　from　an　old　MSS。〃



By　Astle：



〃Appian　is　said　to　have　written　the　Roman

History　in　twenty…four　books；　but　the　greatest

part　of　the　works　of　that　author　is　lost。〃



By　Anthon：



〃He　was　the　author　of　a　Roman　History　in

twenty…four　books　which　no　longer　exist　entire；

the　parts　missing　have　been　supplied　but　was　not

written　by　Appian　but　is　a　mere　compilation　from

Plutarch's　Lives　of　Crassus　and　Antony。〃



By　Astle：



〃Dion　Cassius　wrote　eighty　books　of　history；

but　only　twenty…five　are　remaining；　with　some

fragments；　and　an　epitome　of　the　last　twenty　by

Xiphilinus。〃



By　Anthon：



〃His　true　name　was　Cassius；　born　A。　D。　155；

we　have　fragments　remaining　of　the　first　thirty…

six　books；　they　comprehend　a　period　from　B。　C。　65

to　B。　C。　10；they　were　found　by　Mai　in　two　Vatican

MSS。；　which　contain　a　sylloge　or　collection

made　by　Maximus　Planudes　（who　lived　in　the

fourteenth　century。　He　was　the　first　Greek　that

made　use　of　the　Arabic　numerals　as　they　are

called）。〃



Mr。　Astle　further　observes：



〃The　Emperor　Tacitus　ordered　ten　copies　of　the

works　of　his　relation；　the　historian；　to　be　made

every　year　which　he　sent　into　the　different　provinces

of　the　empire；　and　yet；　notwithstanding　his

endeavours　to　perpetuate　these　inestimable　works；

they　were　buried　in　oblivion　for　many　centuries。

Since　the　restoration　of　learning　an　ancient　MSS。

was　discovered　in　a　monastery　in　Westphalia；

which　contained　the　most　valuable　part　of　his　annals；

but　in　this　unique　manuscript；　part　of　the

fifth；　seventh；　ninth　and　tenth　books　are　deficient；

as　are　part　of　the　eleventh；　and　the　latter　part　of　the

sixteenth。　This　MSS。　was　procured　by　that　great

restorer　of　learning　Pope　Leo　X。；　under　whose　patronage

it　was　printed　at　Rome　in　1515；　he　afterwards

deposited　it　in　the　Vatican　library；　where　it

is　still　preserved。　Thus　posterity　is　probably　indebted

to　the　above　magnificent　Pontiff；　for　the

most　valuable　part　of　the　works　of　this　inimitable

historian。〃



Accounts　which　differentiate　in　their　descriptive　details

of　questioned　ink…written　fragments　of　antiquity

and　on　the　genuineness　or　authenticity　of　which　rests

the　truth　or　falsity　of　ancient　history　or　other　literature；

serve　to　taint　such　remains　with　a　certain　degree

of　suspicion　and　doubt。　When；　however；　in　the　light

of　investigation；　the　materials　of　which　they　are　composed

are　found　to　approach　closely　the　age　they

purport　to　represent；　then　it　is　that　such　fragments

can　be　said　to　have　fairly　established　their　own　identity。



Taylor　asserts：



〃The　remote　antiquity　of　a　manuscript　is　of　ten

established　by　the　peculiar　circumstance　of

its　existing　BENEATH　another　writing。　Some　invaluable

manuscripts　of　the　Holy　Scriptures；　and

not　a　few　precious　fragments　of　classic　literature；

have　been　thus　brought　to　light。



〃The　age　of　a　manuscript　may　often　be　ascertained

with　little　chance　of　error；　by　some　such

indications　as　the　following：the　quality　or

appearance　of　the　INK；　the　nature　of　the　material；

that　is　to　say；　whether　it　be　soft　leather；　or　parchment；

or　the　papyrus　of　Egypt；　or　the　bombycine

paper；　for　these　materials　succeeded　each　other；　in

common　use；　at　periods　that　are　well　known；

the　peculiar　form；　size；　and　character　of　the　writing；

for　a　regular　progression　in　the　modes　of　writing

may　be　traced　by　abundant　evidence　through　every

age　from　the　remotest　times；the　style　of　the　ornaments

or　illuminations；　as　they　are　termed；　often

serves　to　indicate　the　age　of　the　book　which　they　decorate。



〃From　such　indications　as　these；　more　or　less

definite　and　certain；　ancient　manuscripts；　now　extant；

are　assigned　to　various　periods；　extending

from　the　sixteenth；　to　the　fourth　century　of　the

Christian　era；　or　perhaps；　in　one　or　two　instances；

to　the　third　or　second。　Very　few　can　claim　an　antiquity

so　high　as　the　fourth　century；　but　not　a　few

are　safely　attributed　to　the　seventh；　and　a　great

proportion　of　those　extant　were　unquestionably

executed　in　the　tenth；　while　many　belong　to　the

following　four　hundred　years。　It　is；　however；　to

be　observed；　that　some　manuscripts；　executed　at　so

late　a　time　as　the　thirteenth；　or　even　the　fifteenth

century；　afford　clear　internal　evidence　that；　by　a

single　remove　only；　the　text　they　contain　claims　a

REAL　antiquity；　higher　than　that　even　of　the　oldest

existing　copy　of　the　same　work。　For　these　older

copies　sometimes　prove；　by　the　peculiar　nature　of

the　corruptions　which　have　crept　into　the　text；　that

they　have　been　derived　through　a　long　series　of

copies；　while　perhaps　the　text　of　the　more　modern

manuscripts　possesses　such　a　degree　of　purity　and

freedom　from　all　the　usual　consequences　of　frequent

transcription；　as　to　make　it　manifest　that　the　copy

from　which　it　was　taken；　was　so　ancient　as　not　to

be　far　distant　from　the　time　of　the　first　publication

of　the　work。〃







CHAPTER　V。



REVIVAL　OF　INK。



THE　DISAPPEARANCE　AND　PRESERVATION　OF　INK　WRITINGS；

AS　ESTIMATED　BY　LA　CROIXCOMMENTS　OF

OTHER　WRITERSDE　VINNE'S　INTERESTING　EXPLANATIONS

OF　THE　STATUS　QUO　OF　MANUSCRIPT　WRITINGS

DURING　THE　DARK　AGES　WHICH　PRECEDED　THE　INVENTION

OF　PRINTINGPRICES　PAID　FOR　BOOKS　IN

ANCIENT　TIMESLIMITATIONS　OF　HANDWRITING　AND

HANDWRITING　MATERIALS　AT　THE　BEGINNING　OF

THE　FIFTH　CENTURYWHO　CONTROLLED　THE　RECORDS

ABOUT　THEMINVENTION　OF　THE　QUILL

PENTHE　CAUSE　OF　INCREASED　FLUIDITY　OF

INKSORIGIN　OF　THE　SECRETACHARACTER　OF

INFORMATION　OBTAINED　FROM　THEMIMPROVEMENT

OF　BLACK　INKS　IN　THE　EIGHTH　CENTURY　AND　EMPLOYMENT

OF　POMEGRANITE　INK。



LA　CROIX'　preface　to　his　〃Science　and　Literature　of

the　Middle　Ages　and　the　Renaissance；〃　refers　to　the

Dark　Ages：



〃In　the　beginning　of　the　Middle　Ages；　at　the

commencement　of　the　fifth　century；　the　Barbarians

made　an　inroad　upon　the　old　world；　their　renewed

invasions　crushed　out；　in　the　course　of　a　few　years；

the　Greek　and　Roman　civilization；　and　everywhere

darkness　succeeded　to　light。　The　religion　of　Jesus

Christ　was　alone　capable　of　resisting　this　barbarian

invasion；　and　science　and　literature；　together　with

the　arts；　disappeared　from　the　face　of　the　earth；

taking　refuge　in　the　churches　and　monasteries。　It

was　there　that　they　were　preserved　as　a　sacred　deposit；

and　it　was　thence　that　they　emerged　when

Christianity　had　renovated　pagan　society。　But

centuries　and　centuries　elapsed　before　the　sum　of

human　knowledge　was　equal　to　what　it　had　been　at

the　fall　of　the　Roman　empire。　A　new　society；

moreover；　was　needed　for　the　new　efforts　of　human

intelligence　as　it　resumed　its　rights。　Schools　and

universities　were　founded　under　the　auspices　of　the

clergy　and　of　the　religious　corporations；　and　thus

science　and　literature　were　enabled　to　emerge　from

their　tombs。　Europe；　amidst　the　tumultuous　conflicts

of　the　policy　which　made　and　unmade　kingdoms；

witnessed　a　general　revival　of　the　scholastic

zeal；　poets；　orators；　novelists；　and　writers　increased

in