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frequently　under　the　influence　of　those　passions；　and　the　very

worst　of　men　are　so　only　occasionally。　As　their　gratification

too；　how　agreeable　soever　it　may　be　to　certain　characters；　is　not

attended　with　any　real　or　permanent　advantage；　it　is　in　the

greater　part　of　men　commonly　restrained　by　prudential

considerations。　Men　may　live　together　in　society　with　some

tolerable　degree　of　security；　though　there　is　no　civil　magistrate

to　protect　them　from　the　injustice　of　those　passions。　But　avarice

and　ambition　in　the　rich；　in　the　poor　the　hatred　of　labour　and

the　love　of　present　ease　and　enjoyment；　are　the　passions　which

prompt　to　invade　property；　passions　much　more　steady　in　their

operation；　and　much　more　universal　in　their　influence。　Wherever

there　is　great　property　there　is　great　inequality。　For　one　very

rich　man　there　must　be　at　least　five　hundred　poor；　and　the

affluence　of　the　few　supposes　the　indigence　of　the　many。　The

affluence　of　the　rich　excites　the　indignation　of　the　poor；　who

are　often　both　driven　by　want；　and　prompted　by　envy；　to　invade

his　possessions。　It　is　only　under　the　shelter　of　the　civil

magistrate　that　the　owner　of　that　valuable　property；　which　is

acquired　by　the　labour　of　many　years；　or　perhaps　of　many

successive　generations；　can　sleep　a　single　night　in　security。　He

is　at　all　times　surrounded　by　unknown　enemies；　whom；　though　he

never　provoked；　he　can　never　appease；　and　from　whose　injustice　he

can　be　protected　only　by　the　powerful　arm　of　the　civil　magistrate

continually　held　up　to　chastise　it。　The　acquisition　of　valuable

and　extensive　property；　therefore；　necessarily　requires　the

establishment　of　civil　government。　Where　there　is　no　property；　or

at　least　none　that　exceeds　the　value　of　two　or　three　days'

labour；　civil　government　is　not　so　necessary。

　　　　　Civil　government　supposes　a　certain　subordination。　But　as

the　necessity　of　civil　government　gradually　grows　up　with　the

acquisition　of　valuable　property；　so　the　principal　causes　which

naturally　introduce　subordination　gradually　grow　up　with　the

growth　of　that　valuable　property。

　　　　　The　causes　or　circumstances　which　naturally　introduce

subordination；　or　which　naturally；　and　antecedent　to　any　civil

institution；　give　some　men　some　superiority　over　the　greater　part

of　their　brethren；　seem　to　be　four　in　number。

　　　　　The　first　of　those　causes　or　circumstances　is　the

superiority　of　personal　qualifications；　of　strength；　beauty；　and

agility　of　body；　of　wisdom　and　virtue；　of　prudence；　justice；

fortitude；　and　moderation　of　mind。　The　qualifications　of　the

body；　unless　supported　by　those　of　the　mind；　can　give　little

authority　in　any　period　of　society。　He　is　a　very　strong　man；　who；

by　mere　strength　of　body；　can　force　two　weak　ones　to　obey　him。

The　qualifications　of　the　mind　can　alone　give　a　very　great

authority。　They　are；　however；　invisible　qualities；　always

disputable；　and　generally　disputed。　No　society；　whether　barbarous

or　civilised；　has　ever　found　it　convenient　to　settle　the　rules　of

precedency　of　rank　and　subordination　according　to　those　invisible

qualities；　but　according　to　something　that　is　more　plain　and

palpable。

　　　　　The　second　of　those　causes　or　circumstances　is　the

superiority　of　age。　An　old　man；　provided　his　age　is　not　so　far

advanced　as　to　give　suspicion　of　dotage；　is　everywhere　more

respected　than　a　young　man　of　equal　rank；　fortune；　and　abilities。

Among　nations　of　hunters；　such　as　the　native　tribes　of　North

America；　age　is　the　sole　foundation　of　rank　and　precedency。　Among

them；　father　is　the　appellation　of　a　superior；　brother；　of　an

equal；　and　son；　of　an　inferior。　In　the　most　opulent　and　civilised

nations；　age　regulates　rank　among　those　who　are　in　every　other

respect　equal；　and　among　whom；　therefore；　there　is　nothing　else

to　regulate　it。　Among　brothers　and　among　sisters；　the　eldest

always　takes　place；　and　in　the　succession　of　the　paternal　estate

everything　which　cannot　be　divided；　but　must　go　entire　to　one

person；　such　as　a　title　of　honour；　is　in　most　cases　given　to　the

eldest。　Age　is　a　plain　and　palpable　quality　which　admits　of　no

dispute。

　　　　　The　third　of　those　causes　or　circumstances　is　the

superiority　of　fortune。　The　authority　of　riches；　however；　though

great　in　every　age　of　society；　is　perhaps　greatest　in　the　rudest

age　of　society　which　admits　of　any　considerable　inequality　of

fortune。　A　Tartar　chief；　the　increase　of　whose　herds　and　stocks

is　sufficient　to　maintain　a　thousand　men；　cannot　well　employ　that

increase　in　any　other　way　than　in　maintaining　a　thousand　men。　The

rude　state　of　his　society　does　not　afford　him　any　manufactured

produce；　any　trinkets　or　baubles　of　any　kind；　for　which　he　can

exchange　that　part　of　his　rude　produce　which　is　over　and　above

his　own　consumption。　The　thousand　men　whom　he　thus　maintains；

depending　entirely　upon　him　for　their　subsistence；　must　both　obey

his　orders　in　war；　and　submit　to　his　jurisdiction　in　peace。　He　is

necessarily　both　their　general　and　their　judge；　and　his

chieftainship　is　the　necessary　effect　of　the　superiority　of　his

fortune。　In　an　opulent　and　civilised　society；　a　man　may　possess　a

much　greater　fortune　and　yet　not　be　able　to　command　a　dozen

people。　Though　the　produce　of　his　estate　may　be　sufficient　to

maintain；　and　may　perhaps　actually　maintain；　more　than　a　thousand

people；　yet　as　those　people　pay　for　everything　which　they　get

from　him；　as　he　gives　scarce　anything　to　anybody　but　in　exchange

for　an　equivalent；　there　is　scarce　anybody　who　considers　himself

as　entirely　dependent　upon　him；　and　his　authority　extends　only

over　a　few　menial　servants。　The　authority　of　fortune；　however；　is

very　great　even　in　an　opulent　and　civilised　society。　That　it　is

much　greater　than　that　either　of　age　or　of　personal　qualities　has

been　the　constant　complaint　of　every　period　of　society　which

admitted　of　any　considerable　inequality　of　fortune。　The　first

period　of　society；　that　of　hunters；　admits　of　no　such　inequality。

Universal　poverty　establishes　their　universal　equality；　and　the

superiority　either　of　age　or　of　personal　qualities　are　the　feeble

but　the　sole　foundations　of　authority　and　subordination。　There　is

therefore　little　or　no　authority　or　subordination　in　this　period

of　society。　The　second　period　of　society；　that　of　shepherds；

admits　of　very　great　inequalities　of　fortune；　and　there　is　no

period　in　which　the　superiority　of　fortune　gives　so　great

authority　to　those　who　possess　it。　There　is　no　period　accordingly

in　which　authority　and　subordination　are　more　perfectly

established。　The　authority　of　an　Arabian　sherif　is　very　great；

that　of　a　Tartar　khan　altogether　despotical。

　　　　　The　fourth　of　those　causes　or　circumstances　is　the

superiority　of　birth。　Superiority　of　birth　supposes　an　ancient

superiority　of　fortune　in　the　family　of　the　person　who　claims　it。

All　families　are　equally　ancient；　and　the　ancestors　of　the

prince；　though　they　may　be　better　known；　cannot　well　be　more

numerous　than　those　of　the　beggar。　Antiquity　of　family　means

everywhere　the　antiquity　either　of　wealth；　or　of　that　greatness

which　is　commonly　either　founded　upon　wealth；　or　accompanied　with

it。　Upstart　greatness　is　everywhere　less　respected　than　ancient

greatness。　The　hatred　of　usurpers；　the　love　of　the　family　of　an

ancient　monarch；　are；　in　a　great　measure；　founded　upon　the

contempt　which　men　naturally　have　for　the　former；　and　upon　their

veneration　for　the　latter。　As　a　military　officer　submits　without

reluctance　to　the　authority　of　a　superior　by　whom　he　has　always

been　commanded；　but　cannot　bear　that　his　inferior　should　be　set

over　his　head；　so　men　easily　submit　to　a　family　to　whom　they　and

their　ancestors　have　always　submitted；　but　are　fired　with

indignation　when　another　family；　in　whom　they　had　never

acknowledged　any　such　superiority；　assumes　a　dominion　over　them。

　　　　　The　distinction　of　birth；　being　subsequent　to　the　inequality

of　fortune；　can　have　no　place　in　nations　of　hunters；　among　whom

all　men；　being　equal　in　fortune；　must　likewise　be　very　nearly

equal　in　birth。　The　son　of　a　wise　and　brave　man　may；　indeed；　even

among　them；　be　somewhat　more　respected　than　a　man　of　equal　merit

who　has　the　misfortune　to　be　the　son　of　a　fool　or　a　coward。　The

difference；　however；　will　not　be　very　great；　and　there　never　was；

I　believe；　a　great　family　in　the　world　whose　illustration　was

entirely　derived　from　the　inheritance　of　wisdom　and　virtue。

　　　　　The　distinction　of　birth　not　only　may；　but　always　does　take

place　among　nations　of　shepherds。　Such　nations　are　always

strangers　to　every　sort　of　luxury；　and　great　wealth　can　scarce

ever　be　dissipated　among　them　by　improvident　profusion。　There　are

no　nations　accordingly　who　abound　more　in　families　revered　and

honoured　on　account　of　their　descent　from　a　long　race　of　great

and　illustrious　ancestors；　because　there　are　no　nations　among

whom　wealth　is　likely　to　continue　longer　in　the　same　families。

　　　　　Birth　and　fortune　are　e