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means　as　it　would　be　to　produce　wine　in　cold　climates　in



greenhouses；　that　manufactures　would　originate　in　the　natural



course　of　things　of　their　own　accord；　that　agriculture　affords



incomparably　more　opportunity　for　the　increase　of　capital　than



manufactures；　that　the　capital　of　the　nation　is　not　to　be　augmented



by　artificial　measures；　that　laws　and　State　regulations　can　only



induce　a　condition　of　things　less　favourable　to　the　augmentation　of



wealth。　Finally；　where　the　admission　could　not　be　avoided　that



manufactures　had　an　influence　over　agriculture；　it　was　sought　at



least　to　represent　that　influence　to　be　as　little　and　as　uncertain



as　possible。　In　any　case　（it　was　said）　if　manufactures　had　an



influence　over　agriculture；　at　least　everything　is　injurious　to



agriculture　that　is　injurious　to　manufactures；　and　accordingly



manufactures　also　had　an　influence　on　the　increase　of　the　rent　of



land；　but　merely　an　indirect　one。　But；　on　the　other　hand；　the



increase　of　population　and　of　cattle；　the　improvements　in



agriculture；　the　perfection　of　the　means　of　transport；　&c。　had　a



direct　influence　on　the　increase　of　rent。　The　case　is　the　same　here



in　reference　to　this　distinction　between　direct　and　indirect



influence　as　on　many　other　points　where　the　school　draws　this



distinction　（e。g。　in　respect　of　the　results　of　mental　culture）；　and



here　also　is　the　example　already　mentioned　by　us　applicable；　it　is



like　the　fruit　of　the　tree；　which　clearly　（in　the　sense　of　the



school）　is　an　indirect　result；　inasmuch　as　it　grows　on　the　twig；



which　again　is　a　fruit　of　the　branch；　this　again　is　a　fruit　of　the



trunk；　and　the　latter　a　fruit　of　the　root；　which　alone　is　a　direct



product　of　the　soil。　Or　would　it　not　be　just　as　sophistical　to



speak　of　the　population；　the　stock　of　cattle；　the　means　of



transport；　&c。　as　direct　causes；　but　of　manufactures；　on　the



contrary；　as　an　indirect　cause　of　the　augmentation　of　rents；　while；



nevertheless；　one's　very　eyesight　teaches　one　in　every　large



manufacturing　country　that　manufactures　themselves　are　a　chief



cause　of　the　augmentation　of　population；　of　the　stock　of　cattle；



and　of　means　of　transport；　&c。？　And　would　it　be　logical　and　just　to



co…ordinate　these　effects　of　manufactures　with　their　cause　　in



fact；　to　put　these　results　of　manufactures　at　the　head　as　main



causes；　and　to　put　the　manufactures　themselves　as　an　indirect



（consequently；　almost　as　a　secondary）　cause　behind　the　former？　And



what　else　can　have　induced　so　deeply　investigating　a　genius　as　Adam



Smith　to　make　use　of　an　argument　so　perverted　and　so　little　in



accordance　with　the　actual　nature　of　things；　than　a　desire　to　put



especially　into　the　shade　manufactures；　and　their　influence　on　the



prosperity　and　the　power　of　the　nation；　and　on　the　augmentation　of



the　rent　and　the　value　of　the　land？　And　from　what　other　motive　can



this　have　taken　place　than　a　wish　to　avoid　explanations　whose



results　would　speak　too　loudly　in　favour　of　the　system　of



protection？　The　school　has　been　especially　unfortunate　since　the



time　of　Adam　Smith　in　its　investigations　as　to　the　nature　of　rent。



Ricardo；　and　after　him　Mill；　M'Culloch；　and　others；　are　of　opinion



that　rent　is　paid　on　account　of　the　natural　productive　fertility



inherent　in　the　land　itself。　Ricardo　has　based　a　whole　system　on



this　notion。　If　he　had　made　an　excursion　to　Canada；　he　would　have



been　able　to　make　observations　there　in　every　valley；　on　every



hill；　which　would　have　convinced　him　that　his　theory　is　based　on



sand。　As　he；　however；　only　took　into　account　the　circumstances　of



England；　he　fell　into　the　erroneous　idea　that　these　English　fields



and　meadows　for　whose　pretended　natural　productive　capability　such



handsome　rents　are　now　paid；　have　at　all　times　been　the　same　fields



and　meadows。　The　original　natural　productive　capability　of　land　is



evidently　so　unimportant；　and　affords　to　the　person　using　it　so



small　an　excess　of　products；　that　the　rent　derivable　from　it　alone



is　not　worth　mentioning。　All　Canada　in　its　original　state



（inhabited　merely　by　hunters）　would　yield　in　meat　and　skins



scarcely　enough　income　to　pay　the　salary　of　a　single　Oxonian



professor　of　political　economy。　The　natural　productive　capability



of　the　soil　in　Malta　consists　of　rocks；　which　would　scarcely　have



yielded　a　rent　at　any　time。　If　we　follow　up　with　the　mind's　eye　the



course　of　the　civilisation　of　whole　nations；　and　of　their



conversion　from　the　condition　of　hunters　to　the　pastoral　condition；



and　from　this　to　that　of　agriculturists；　&c。；　we　may　easily



convince　ourselves　that　the　rent　everywhere　was　originally　nil；　and



that　it　rose　everywhere　with　the　progress　of　civilisation；　of



population；　and　with　the　increase　of　mental　and　material　capital。



By　comparing　the　mere　agricultural　nation　with　the　agricultural；



manufacturing；　and　commercial　nation；　it　will　be　seen　that　in　the



latter　twenty　times　more　people　live　on　rents　than　in　the　former。



According　to　Marshal's　statistics　of　Great　britain；　for　example；　in



England　and　Scotland　16；537；398　human　beings　were　living　in　1831；



among　whom　were　1；116；398　rentiers。　We　could　scarcely　find　in



Poland　on　an　equal　space　of　land　the　twentieth　part　of　this　number。



If　we　descend　from　generals　to　particulars　and　investigate　the



origin　and　cause　of　the　rental　of　separate　estates；　we　find



everywhere　that　it　is　the　result　of　a　productive　capability　which



has　been　bestowed　on　it　not　spontaneously　by　nature；　but　chiefly



（directly　or　indirectly）　through　the　mental　and　material　labour　and



capital　employed　thereon　and　through　the　development　of　society。　We



see；　indeed；　how　pieces　of　land　yield　rents　which　the　hand　of　men



has　never　stirred　by　cultivation；　as；　for　instance；　quarries；　sand



pits；　pasture　grounds；　but　this　rent　is　merely　the　effect　of　the



increase　of　culture；　capital；　and　population　in　the　vicinity。　We



see；　on　the　other　hand；　that　those　pieces　of　land　bring　most　rent



whose　natural　productive　capability　has　been　totally　destroyed；　and



which　serve　for　no　other　use　than　for　men　to　eat　and　drink；　sit；



sleep；　or　walk；　work；　or　enjoy　themselves；　teach　or　be　taught　upon；



viz。　building　sites。



　　　　The　basis　of　rent　is　the　exclusive　benefit　or　advantage　which



the　ground　yields　to　that　individual　at　whose　exclusive　disposal　it



is　placed；　and　the　greatness　of　this　benefit　is　determined



especially　according　to　the　amount　of　available　mental　and　material



capital　in　the　community　in　which　he　is　placed；　and　also　according



to　the　opportunity　which　the　special　situation　and　peculiar



character　of　the　property　and　the　utilisation　of　capital　previously



invested　therein　affords　to　the　person　exclusively　possessing　the



property　for　obtaining　material　values；　or　for　satisfying　mental



and　bodily　requirements　and　enjoyments。



　　　　Rent　is　the　interest　of　a　capital　which　is　fixed　to　a　natural



fund；　or　which　is　a　capitalised　natural　fund。　The　territory；



however；　of　that　nation　which　has　merely　capitalised　the　natural



funds　devoted　to　agriculture；　and　which　does　so　in　that　imperfect



manner　which　is　the　case　in　mere　agriculture；　yields　incomparably



less　rent　than　the　territory　of　that　nation　which　combines



agricultural　and　manufacturing　industry　on　its　territory。　The



rentiers　of　such　a　country　live　mostly　in　the　same　nation　which



supplies　the　manufactured　goods。　But　when　the　nation　which　is　far



advanced　in　agriculture　and　population　establishes　a　manufacturing



industry　of　its　own；　it　capitalises　（as　we　have　already　proved　in



a　former　chapter）　not　merely　those　powers　of　nature　which　are



specially　serviceable　for　manufactures　and　were　hitherto



unemployed；　but　also　the　greatest　part　of　the　manufacturing　powers



serving　for　agriculture。　The　increase　of　rent　in　such　a　nation；



therefore；　infinitely　exceeds　the　interest　of　the　material　capital



required　to　develop　the　manufacturing　power。







NOTES：







1。　General　Statistics　of　the　British　Empire　London；　1836。







Chapter　21







The　Manufacturing　Power　and　Commerce







　　　　We　have　hitherto　merely　spoken　of　the　relations　between



agriculture　and　manufactures；　because　they　form　the　fundamental



ingredients　of　the　national　production；　and　because；　before



obtaining　a　clear　view　of　their　mutual　relations；　it　is　impossible



to　comprehend　correctly　the　actual　function　and　position　of



commerce。　Commerce　is　also　certainly　productive　（as　the　school



maintains）；　but　it　is　so　in　quite　a　different　manner　from