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be　employed　in　agriculture　for　the　purpose　of　supplying　the



citizens　of　those　towns　with　raw　material　and　necessaries　of　life。



Now；　Dr　Bowring　himself　estimates　the　consumption　of　the　country



population　in　France　at　16　1/2　gallons　per　head；　and　that　of　the



town　population　at　double　that　quantity；　or　33　gallons　per　head。



Thus　in　consequence　of　the　diminution　of　the　home　manufacturing



power　effected　by　free　trade；　the　internal　consumption　of　wines



would　decrease　by　50　million　gallons；　while　the　exportation　of　wine



could　only　increase　by　5　or　6　million　gallons。　Such　a　result　could



scarcely　be　to　the　special　advantage　of　the　French　proprietors　of



vineyards；　since　the　internal　demand　for　wines　would　necessarily



suffer　ten　times　more　than　the　external　demand　could　possibly　gain。



　　　　In　one　word：　it　is　evident　as　respects　the　production　of　wine；



as　also　in　that　of　meat；　of　corn；　and　of　raw　materials　and



provisions　generally；　that　in　the　case　of　a　great　nation　well



fitted　to　establish　a　manufacturing　power　of　its　own；　the　internal



manufacturing　production　occasions　ten　to　twenty　times　more　demand



for　the　agricultural　products　of　temperate　climates；　consequently



acts　ten　to　twenty　times　more　effectually　on　the　increase　of　the



rent　and　exchangeable　value　of　real　estate；　than　the　most



flourishing　exportation　of　such　products　can　do。　The　most



convincing　proof　of　this　may　also　be　seen　in　the　amount　of　rents



and　the　exchangeable　value　of　land　near　large　towns；　as　compared



with　their　amount　and　value　in　distant　provinces；　even　though　these



latter　are　connected　with　the　capital　by　good　roads　and



conveniences　for　commercial　intercourse。



　　　　The　doctrine　of　rent　can　either　be　considered　from　the　point　of



view　of　values　or　from　the　point　of　view　of　productive　powers；　it



can　further　be　considered　with　respect　merely　to　private　relations；



namely；　the　relations　between　landed　proprietor；　farmer；　and



labourer；　or　with　especial　regard　to　the　social　and　national



relations　and　conditions。　The　school　has　taken　up　this　doctrine



chiefly　from　the　sole　point　of　view　of　private　economy。　So　far　as



we　know；　for　instance；　nothing　has　been　adduced　by　it　to　show　how



the　consumption　of　the　rents　of　the　nation　is　the　more　advantageous



the　more　it　takes　place　in　the　proximity　of　the　place　whence　it　is



derived；　but　how　nevertheless　in　the　various　States　that



consumption　takes　place　principally　at　the　seat　of　the　sovereign



（e。g。　in　absolute　monarchies　mostly　in　the　national　metropolis）；



far　away　from　the　provinces　where　it　is　produced；　and　therefore　in



a　manner　the　least　advantageous　to　agriculture；　to　the　most　useful



industries；　and　to　the　development　of　the　mental　powers　of　the



nation。　Where　the　landowning　aristocracy　possess　no　rights　and　no



political　influence　unless　they　live　at　the　Court；　or　occupy



offices　of　State；　and　where　all　public　power　and　influence　is



centralised　in　the　national　metropolis；　landowners　are　attracted　to



that　central　point；　where　almost　exclusively　they　can　find　the



means　of　satisfying　their　ambition；　and　opportunities　for　spending



the　income　of　their　landed　property　in　a　pleasant　manner；　and　the



more　that　most　landowners　get　accustomed　to　live　in　the　capital；



and　the　less　that　a　residence　in　the　provinces　offers　to　each



individual　opportunities　for　social　intercourse　and　for　mental　and



material　enjoyments　of　a　more　refined　character；　the　more　will



provincial　life　repel　him　and　the　metropolis　attract　him。　The



province　thereby　loses　and　the　metropolis　gains　almost　all　those



means　of　mental　improvement　which　result　from　the　spending　of



rents；　especially　those　manufactures　and　mental　producers　which



would　have　been　maintained　by　the　rent。　The　metropolis　under　those



circumstances；　indeed；　appears　extremely　attractive　because　it



unites　in　itself　all　the　talents　of　the　intellectual　workers　and



the　greatest　part　of　the　material　trades　which　produce　articles　of



luxury。　But　the　provinces　are　thereby　deprived　of　those　mental



powers；　of　those　material　means；　and　especially　of　those



industries；　which　chiefly　enable　the　agriculturist　to　undertake



agricultural　improvements；　and　stimulate　him　to　effect　them。



　　　　In　these　circumstances　lies　to　a　great　extent　the　reason　why　in



France；　especially　under　absolute　monarchy；　alongside　of　a



metropolis　surpassing　in　intellect　and　splendour　all　towns　of　the



European　continent；　agriculture　made　but　slight　progress；　and　the



provinces　were　deficient　in　mental　culture　and　in　useful



industries。　But　the　more　that　the　landed　aristocracy　gains　in



independence　of　the　Court；　and　in　influence　in　legislation　and



administration；　the　more　that　the　representative　system　and　the



system　of　administration　grants　to　the　towns　and　provinces　the



right　of　administering　their　own　local　affairs　and　of　taking　part



in　the　legislation　and　government　of　the　State；　and　consequently



the　more　that　respect　and　influence　can　be　attained　in　the



provinces　and　by　living　there；　so　much　the　more　will　the　landed



aristocracy；　and　the　educated　and　well…to…do　citizens；　be　drawn　to



those　localities　from　which　they　derived　their　rents；　the　greater



also　will　be　the　influence　of　the　expenditure　of　those　rents　on　the



development　of　the　mental　powers　and　social　institutions；　on　the



promotion　of　agriculture；　and　on　the　development　of　those



industries　which　are　useful　to　the　great　masses　of　the　people　in



the　province。



　　　　The　economical　conditions　of　England　afford　proof　of　this



observation。　The　fact　that　the　English　landed　proprietor　lives　for



the　greatest　portion　of　the　year　on　his　estates；　promotes　in



manifold　ways　the　improvement　of　English　agriculture：　directly；



because　the　resident　landowner　devotes　a　portion　of　his　rent　to



undertaking　on　his　own　account　improvements　in　agriculture；　or　to



supporting　such　improvements　when　undertaken　by　his　tenants；



indirectly；　because　his　own　consumption　tends　to　support　the



manufactures　and　agencies　of　mental　improvement　and　Civilisation



existing　in　the　neighbourhood。　From　these　circumstances　it　can



further　partly　be　explained　why　in　Germany　and　in　Switzerland；　in



spite　of　the　want　of　large　towns；　of　important　means　of　transport；



and　of　national　institutions；　agriculture　and　Civilisation　in



general　are　in　a　much　higher　condition　than　in　France。



　　　　But　the　great　error　into　which　in　this　matter　Adam　Smith　and



his　school　have　fallen　is　that　which　we　have　already　before



indicated；　but　which　can　be　here　more　clearly　shown；　viz。　that　he



did　not　clearly　recognise　the　influence　of　manufactures　on　the



increase　of　rents；　on　the　market　value　of　landed　property　itself；



and　on　the　agricultural　capital；　and　did　not　state　this　by　any



means　to　its　full　extent；　but；　on　the　contrary；　has　drawn　a



comparison　between　agriculture　and　manufactures　in　such　a　manner



that　he　would　to　a　make　it　appear　that　agriculture　is　far　more



valuable　and　important　nation　than　manufactures；　and　that　the



prosperity　resulting　from　it　is　far　more　lasting　than　the



prosperity　resulting　from　the　latter。　Adam　Smith　in　so　doing　merely



sanctioned　the　erroneous　view　of　the　physiocratic　school；　although



in　a　somewhat　modified　manner。　He　was　evidently　misled　by　the



circumstance　that　　as　we　have　already　demonstrated　by　the



statistical　conditions　of　England　　the　material　agricultural



capital　is　（even　in　the　richest　manufacturing　country）　ten　to



twenty　times　more　important　than　the　material　manufacturing



capital；　in　fact；　even　the　annual　agricultural　productiOn　far



exceeds　in　value　the　total　manufacturing　capital。　The　same



circumstance　may　also　have　induced　the　physiocratic　school　to



over…estimate　the　value　of　agriculture　in　comparison　with



manufactures。　Superficially　considered；　it　certainly　appears　as　if



agriculture　enriches　a　country　ten　times　more；　and　consequently



deserves　ten　times　more　consideration；　and　is　ten　times　more



important　to　the　State　than　manufactures。　This；　however；　is　merely



apparent。　If　we　investigate　the　causes　of　this　agricultural



prosperity　to　their　basis；　we　find　them　principally　in　the



existence　of　manufactures。　It　is　those　218　millions　of



manufacturing　capital　which　have　principally　called　into　existence



those　3；311　millions　of　agricultural　capital。　The　same



consideration　holds　good　as　respects　means　of　transport；　it　is　the



money　expended　in　constructing　them　which　has　made　those　lands



which　are　within　the　reach　of　the　canals　more　valuable。　If　the