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renounce　self…redress；　can　only　be　realised　if　a　large　number　of



nationalities　attain　to　as　nearly　the　same　degree　as　possible　of



industry　and　civilisation；　political　cultivation；　and　power。　Only



with　the　gradual　formation　of　this　union　can　free　trade　be



developed；　only　as　a　result　of　this　union　can　it　confer　on　all



nations　the　same　great　advantages　which　are　now　experienced　by



those　provinces　and　states　which　are　politically　united。　The　system



of　protection；　inasmuch　as　it　forms　the　only　means　of　placing　those



nations　which　are　far　behind　in　civilisation　on　equal　terms　with



the　one　predominating　nation　（which；　however；　never　received　at　the



hands　of　Nature　a　perpetual　right　to　a　monopoly　of　manufacture；　but



which　merely　gained　an　advance　over　others　in　point　of　time）；　the



system　of　protection　regarded　from　this　point　of　view　appears　to　be



the　most　efficient　means　of　furthering　the　final　union　of　nations；



and　hence　also　of　promoting　true　freedom　of　trade。　And　national



economy　appears　from　this　point　of　view　to　be　that　science　which；



correctly　appreciating　the　existing　interests　and　the　individual



circumstances　of　nations；　teaches　how　every　separate　nation　can　be



raised　to　that　stage　of　industrial　development　in　which　union　with



other　nations　equally　well　developed；　and　consequently　freedom　of



trade；　can　become　possible　and　useful　to　it。



　　　　The　popular　school；　however；　has　mixed　up　both　doctrines　with



one　another；　it　has　fallen　into　the　grave　error　of　judging　of　the



conditions　of　nations　according　to　purely　cosmopolitical



principles；　and　of　ignoring　from　merely　political　reasons　the



cosmopolitical　tendency　of　the　productive　powers。



　　　　Only　by　ignoring　the　cosmopolitical　tendency　of　the　productive



powers　could　Malthus　be　led　into　the　error　of　desiring　to　restrict



the　increase　of　population；　or　Chalmers　and　Torrens　maintain　more



recently　the　strange　idea　that　augmentation　of　capital　and



unrestricted　production　are　evils　the　restriction　of　which　the



welfare　of　the　community　imperatively　demands；　or　Sismondi　declare



that　manufactures　are　things　injurious　to　the　community。　Their



theory　in　this　case　resembles　Saturn；　who　devours　his　own　children



　the　same　theory　which　allows　that　from　the　increase　of



population；　of　capital　and　machinery　division　of　labour　takes



place；　and　explains　from　this　the　welfare　of　society；　finally



considers　these　forces　as　monsters　which　threaten　the　prosperity　of



nations；　because　it　merely　regards　the　present　conditions　of



individual　nations；　and　does　not　take　into　consideration　the



conditions　of　the　whole　globe　and　the　future　progress　of　mankind。



　　　　It　is　not　true　that　population　increases　in　a　larger　proportion



than　production　of　the　means　of　subsistence；　it　is　at　least　foolish



to　assume　such　disproportion；　or　to　attempt　to　prove　it　by



artificial　calculations　or　sophistical　arguments；　so　long　as　on　the



globe　a　mass　of　natural　forces　still　lies　inert　by　means　of　which



ten　times　or　perhaps　a　hundred　times　more　people　than　are　now



living　can　be　sustained。　It　is　mere　narrow…mindedness　to　consider



the　present　extent　of　the　productive　forces　as　the　test　of　how　many



persons　could　be　supported　on　a　given　area　of　land。　The　savage；　the



hunter；　and　the　fisherman；　according　to　his　own　calculation；　would



not　find　room　enough　for　one　million　persons；　the　shepherd　not　for



ten　millions；　the　raw　agriculturist　not　for　one　hundred　millions　on



the　whole　globe；　and　yet　two　hundred　millions　are　living　at　present



in　Europe　alone。　The　culture　of　the　potato　and　of　food…yielding



plants；　and　the　more　recent　improvements　made　in　agriculture



generally；　have　increased　tenfold　the　productive　powers　of　the



human　race　for　the　creation　of　the　means　of　subsistence。　In　the



Middle　Ages　the　yield　of　wheat　of　an　acre　of　land　in　England　was



fourfold；　to…day　it　is　ten　to　twenty　fold；　and　in　addition　to　that



five　times　more　land　is　cultivated。　In　many　European　countries　（the



soil　of　which　possesses　the　same　natural　fertility　as　that　of



England）　the　yield　at　present　does　not　exceed　fourfold。　Who　will



venture　to　set　further　limits　to　the　discoveries；　inventions；　and



improvements　of　the　human　race？　Agricultural　chemistry　is　still　in



its　infancy；　who　can　tell　that　to…morrow；　by　means　of　a　new



invention　or　discovery；　the　produce　of　the　soil　may　not　be



increased　five　or　ten　fold？　We　already　possess；　in　the　artesian



well；　the　means　of　converting　unfertile　wastes　into　rich　corn



fields；　and　what　unknown　forces　may　not　yet　be　hidden　in　the



interior　of　the　earth？　Let　us　merely　suppose　that　through　a　new



discovery　we　were　enabled　to　produce　heat　everywhere　very　cheaply



and　without　the　aid　of　the　fuels　at　present　known：　what　spaces　of



land　could　thus　be　utilised　for　cultivation；　and　in　what　an



incalculable　degree　w　ould　the　yield　of　a　given　area　of　land　be



increased？　If　Malthus'　doctrine　appears　to　us　in　its　tendency



narrow…minded；　it　is　also　in　the　methods　by　which　it　could　act　an



unnatural　one；　which　destroys　morality　and　power；　and　is　simply



horrible。　It　seeks　to　destroy　a　desire　which　nature　uses　as　the



most　active　means　for　inciting　men　to　exert　body　and　mind；　and　to



awaken　and　support　their　nobler　feelings　　a　desire　to　which



humanity　for　the　greater　part　owes　its　progress。　It　would　elevate



the　most　heartless　egotism　to　the　position　of　a　law；　it　requires　us



to　close　our　hearts　against　the　starving　man；　because　if　we　hand



him　food　and　drink；　another　might　starve　in　his　place　in　thirty



years'　time。　It　substitutes　cold　calculation　for　sympathy。　This



doctrine　tends　to　convert　the　hearts　of　men　into　stones。　But　what



could　be　finally　expected　of　a　nation　whose　citizens　should　carry



stones　instead　of　hearts　in　their　bosoms？　What　else　than　the　total



destruction　of　all　morality；　and　with　it　of　all　productive　forces；



and　therefore　of　all　the　wealth；　civilisation；　and　power　of　the



nation？



　　　　If　in　a　nation　the　population　increases　more　than　the



production　of　the　means　of　subsistence；　if　capital　accumulates　at



length　to　such　an　extent　as　no　longer　to　find　investment；　if



machinery　throws　a　number　of　operatives　out　of　work　and



manufactured　goods　accumulate　to　a　large　excess；　this　merely



proves；　that　nature　will　not　allow　industry；　civilisation；　wealth；



and　power　to　fall　exclusively　to　the　lot　of　a　single　nation；　or



that　a　large　portion　of　the　globe　suitable　for　cultivation　should



be　merely　inhabited　by　wild　animals；　and　that　the　largest　portion



of　the　human　race　should　remain　sunk　in　savagery；　ignorance；　and



poverty。



　　　　We　have　shown　into　what　errors　the　school　has　fallen　by　judging



the　productive　forces　of　the　human　race　from　a　political　point　of



view；　we　have　now　also　to　point　out　the　mistakes　which　it　has



committed　by　regarding　the　separate　interests　of　nations　from　a



cosmopolitical　point　of　view。



　　　　If　a　confederation　of　all　nations　existed　in　reality；　as　is　the



case　with　the　separate　states　constituting　the　Union　of　North



America；　the　excess　of　population；　talents；　skilled　abilities；　and



material　capital　would　flow　over　from　England　to　the　Continental



states；　in　a　similar　manner　to　that　in　which　it　travels　from　the



eastern　states　of　the　American　Union　to　the　western；　provided　that



in　the　Continental　states　the　same　security　for　persons　and



property；　the　same　constitution　and　general　laws　prevailed；　and



that　the　English　Government　was　made　subject　to　the　united　will　of



the　universal　confederation。　Under　these　suppositions　there　would



be　no　better　way　of　raising　all　these　countries　to　the　same　stage



of　wealth　and　cultivation　as　England　than　free　trade。　This　is　the



argument　of　the　school。　But　how　would　it　tally　with　the　actual



operation　of　free　trade　under　the　existing　conditions　of　the　world？



　　　　The　Britons　as　an　independent　and　separate　nation　would



henceforth　take　their　national　interest　as　the　sole　guide　of　their



policy。　The　Englishman；　from　predilection　for　his　language；　for　his



laws；　regulations；　and　habits；　would　whenever　it　was　possible



devote　his　powers　and　his　capital　to　develop　his　own　native



industry；　for　which　the　system　of　free　trade；　by　extending　the



market　for　English　manufactures　over　all　countries；　would　offer　him



sufficient　opportunity；　he　would　not　readily　take　a　fancy　to



establish　manufactures　in　France　or　Germany。　All　excess　of　capital



in　England　would　be　at　once　devoted　to　trading　with　foreign　parts



of　the　world。　If　the　Englishman　took　i