bentham-第8部分

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nservators　of　ancient　barbarous　usages'。　The　basis　of　the　English　law　was；　and　still　is；　the　feudal　system。　That　system；　like　all　those　which　existed　as　custom　before　they　were　established　as　law；　possessed　a　certain　degree　of　suitableness　to　the　wants　of　the　society　among　whom　it　grew　up　　that　is　to　say；　of　a　tribe　of　rude　soldiers；　holding　a　conquered　people　in　subjection；　and　dividing　its　spoils　among　themselves。　Advancing　civilization　had；　however；　converted　this　armed　encampment　of　barbarous　warriors　in　the　midst　of　enemies　reduced　to　slavery；　into　an　industrious；　commercial；　rich；　and　free　people。　The　laws　which　were　suitable　to　the　first　of　these　states　of　society；　could　have　no　manner　of　relation　to　the　circumstances　of　the　second；　which　could　not　even　have　come　into　existence　unless　something　had　been　done　to　adapt　those　laws　to　it。　But　the　adaptation　was　not　the　result　of　thought　and　design；　it　arose　not　from　any　comprehensive　consideration　of　the　new　state　of　society　and　its　exigencies。　What　was　done；　was　done　by　a　struggle　of　centuries　between　the　old　barbarism　and　the　new　civilization；　between　the　feudal　aristocracy　of　conquerors；　holding　fast　to　the　rude　system　they　had　established；　and　the　conquered　effecting　their　emancipation。　The　last　was　the　growing　power；　but　was　never　strong　enough　to　break　its　bonds；　though　ever　and　anon　some　weak　point　gave　way。　Hence　the　law　came　to　be　like　the　costume　of　a　full…grown　man　who　had　never　put　off　the　clothes　made　for　him　when　he　first　went　to　school。　Band　after　band　had　burst；　and；　as　the　rent　widened；　then；　without　removing　anything　except　what　might　drop　off　of　itself；　the　hole　was　darned；　or　patches　of　fresh　law　were　brought　from　the　nearest　shop　and　stuck　on。　Hence　all　ages　of　English　history　have　given　one　another　rendezvous　in　English　law；　their　several　products　may　be　seen　all　together；　not　interfused；　but　heaped　one　upon　another；　as　many　different　ages　of　the　earth　may　be　read　in　some　perpendicular　section　of　its　surface　　the　deposits　of　each　successive　period　not　substituted　but　superimposed　on　those　of　the　preceding。　And　in　the　world　of　law　no　less　than　in　the　physical　world；　every　commotion　and　conflict　of　the　elements　has　left　its　mark　behind　in　some　break　or　irregularity　of　the　strata：　every　struggle　which　ever　rent　the　bosom　of　society　is　apparent　in　the　disjointed　condition　of　the　part　of　the　field　of　law　which　covers　the　spot：　nay；　the　very　traps　and　pitfalls　which　one　contending　party　set　for　another　are　still　standing；　and　the　teeth　not　of　hyenas　only；　but　of　foxes　and　all　cunning　animals；　are　imprinted　on　the　curious　remains　found　in　these　antediluvian　caves。　　　　　In　the　English　law；　as　in　the　Roman　before　it；　the　adaptations　of　barbarous　laws　to　the　growth　of　civilized　society　were　made　chiefly　by　stealth。　They　were　generally　made　by　the　courts　of　justice；　who　could　not　help　reading　the　new　wants　of　mankind　in　the　cases　between　man　and　man　which　came　before　them；　but　who；　having　no　authority　to　make　new　laws　for　those　new　wants；　were　obliged　to　do　the　work　covertly；　and　evade　the　jealousy　and　opposition　of　an　ignorant；　prejudiced；　and　for　the　most　part　brutal　and　tyrannical　legislature。　Some　of　the　most　necessary　of　these　improvements；　such　as　the　giving　force　of　law　to　trusts；　and　the　breaking　up　of　entails；　were　effected　in　actual　opposition　to　the　strongly…declared　will　of　Parliament；　whose　clumsy　hands；　no…match　for　the　astuteness　of　judges；　could　not；　after　repeated　trials；　manage　to　make　any　law　which　the　judges　could　not　find　a　trick　for　rendering　inoperative。　The　whole　history　of　the　contest　about　trusts　may　still　be　read　in　the　words　of　a　conveyance；　as　could　the　contest　about　entails；　till　the　abolition　of　fine　and　recovery　by　a　bill　of　the　present　Attorney…General；　but　dearly　did　the　client　pay　for　the　cabinet　of　historical　curiosities　which　he　was　obliged　to　purchase　every　time　that　he　made　a　settlement　of　his　estate。　The　result　of　this　mode　of　improving　social　institutions　was；　that　whatever　new　things　were　done　had　to　be　done　in　consistency　with　old　forms　and　names；　and　the　laws　were　improved　with　much　the　same　effect　as　if；　in　the　improvement　of　agriculture；　the　plough　could　only　have　been　introduced　by　making　it　look　like　a　spade；　or　as　if；　when　the　primeval　practice　of　ploughing　by　the　horse's　tail　gave　way　to　the　innovation　of　harness；　the　tail；　for　form's　sake；　had　still　remained　attached　to　the　plough。　　　　　When　the　conflicts　were　over；　and　the　mixed　mass　settled　down　into　something　like　a　fixed　state；　and　that　state　a　very　profitable　and　therefore　a　very　agreeable　one　to　lawyers；　they；　following　the　natural　tendency　of　the　human　mind；　began　to　theorize　upon　it；　and；　in　obedience　to　necessity；　had　to　digest　it　and　give　it　a　systematic　form。　It　was　from　this　thing　of　shreds　and　patches；　in　which　the　only　part　that　approached　to　order　or　system　was　the　early　barbarous　part；　already　more　than　half　superseded；　that　English　lawyers　had　to　construct；　by　induction　and　abstraction；　their　philosophy　of　law；　and　without　the　logical　habits　and　general　intellectual　cultivation　which　the　lawyers　of　the　Roman　empire　brought　to　a　similar　task。　Bentham　found　the　philosophy　of　law　what　English　practising　lawyers　had　made　it；　a　jumble；　in　which　real　and　personal　property；　law　and　equity；　felony；　praemunire；　misprision　and　misdemeanour；　words　without　a　vestige　of　meaning　when　detached　from　the　history　of　English　institutions　　mere　tide…marks　to　point　out　the　line　which　the　sea　and　the　shore；　in　their　secular　struggles；　had　adjusted　as　their　mutual　boundary　　all　passed　for　distinctions　inherent　in　the　nature　of　things；　in　which　every　absurdity；　every　lucrative　abuse；　had　a　reason　found　for　it　　a　reason　which　only　now　and　then　even　pretended　to　be　drawn　from　expediency。　most　commonly　a　technical　reason；　one　of　mere　form；　derived　from　the　old　barbarous　system。　While　the　theory　of　the　law　was　in　this　state；　to　describe　what　the　practice　of　it　was　would　require　the　pen　of　a　Swift；　or　of　Bentham　himself。　The　whole　progress　of　a　suit　at　law　seemed　like　a　series　of　contrivances　for　lawyers'　profit；　in　which　the　suitors　were　regarded　as　the　prey；　and　if　the　poor　were　not　the　helpless　victims　of　every　Sir　Giles　Overreach　who　could　pay　the　price；　they　might　thank　opinion　and　manners　for　it；　not　the　law。　　　　　It　may　be　fancied　by　some　people　that　Bentham　did　an　easy　thing　in　merely　calling　all　this　absurd；　and　proving　it　to　be　so。　But　he　began　the　contest　a　young　man；　and　he　had　grown　old　before　he　had　any　followers。　History　will　one　day　refuse　to　give　credit　to　the　intensity　of　the　superstition　which；　till　very　lately；　protected　this　mischievous　mess　from　examination　or　doubt　　passed　off　the　charming　representations　of　Blackstone　for　a　just　estimate　of　the　English　law；　and　proclaimed　the　shame　of　human　reason　to　be　the　perfection　of　it。　Glory　to　Bentham　that　he　has　dealt　to　this　superstition　its　deathblow　　that　he　has　been　the　Hercules　of　this　hydra；　the　St。　George　of　this　pestilent　dragon！　The　honour　is　all　his　　nothing　but　his　peculiar　qualities　could　have　done　it。　There　were　wanted　his　indefatigable　perseverance；　his　firm　self…reliance；　needing　no　support　from　other　men's　opinion；　his　intensely　practical　turn　of　mind；　his　synthetical　habits　　above　all；　his　peculiar　method。　Metaphysicians；　armed　with　vague　generalities；　had　often　tried　their　hands　at　the　subject；　and　left　it　no　more　advanced　than　they　found　it。　Law　is　a　matter　of　business；　means　and　ends　are　the　things　to　be　considered　in　it；　not　abstractions：　vagueness　was　not　to　be　met　by　vagueness；　but　by　definiteness　and　precision：　details　were　not　to　be　encountered　with　generalities；　but　with　details。　Nor　could　any　progress　be　made；　on　such　a　subject；　by　merely　showing　that　existing　things　were　bad；　it　was　necessary　also　to　show　how　they　might　be　made　better。　No　great　man　whom　we　read　of　was　qualified　to　do　this　thing　except　Bentham。　He　has　done　it；　once　and　for　ever。　　　　　Into　the　particulars　of　what　Bentham　has　done　we　cannot　enter。　many　hundred　pages　would　be　required　to　give　a　tolerable　abstract　of　it。　To　sum　up　our　estimate　under　a　few　heads。　First：　he　has　expelled　mysticism　from　the　philosophy　of　law；　and　set　the　example　of　viewing　laws　in　a　practical　light；　as　means　to　certain　definite　and　precise　ends。　Secondly。　he　has　cleared　up　the　confusion　and　vagueness　attaching　to　the　idea　of　law　in　general；　to　the　idea　of　a　body　of　laws；　and　the　various　general　ideas　therein　involved。　Thirdly：　he　demonstrated　the　necessity　and　practicability　of　codification；　or　the　conversion　of　all　law　into　a　written　and　systematically　arranged　Code：　not　like　the　code　Napoleon；　a　code　without　a　single　definition；　requiring　a　constant　reference　to　anterior　precedent　for　the　meaning　of　its　technical　terms；　but　one　containing　within　itself　all　that　is　necessary　for　its　own　interpretation；　together　with　a　perpetual　provision　for　its　own　emendation　and　improvement。　He　has　shown　of　what　parts　such　a　code　would　consist；　the　relation　of　those　parts　to　one　another；　and　by　his　distinctions　and　classifications　has　done　very　much　towards　showing　what　should　be；　or　might　be；　its　nomenclature　and　arrangement。　What　he　has　left　undone；　he　had　made　it　comp