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in　the　Celtic　nature　so　far　transcended　the　limits　of

the　island；　and　indeed　of　Great　Britain；　that　Irish

missionaries　and　monks　were　soon　found　in　the

chief　religious　centres　of　Gaul；　Germany；　Switzerland；

and　North　Italy；　while　foreigners　found　their

toilsome　way　to　Ireland　to　learn　Greek！　But　less

prominence　has　been　given　to　the　artistic　side　of

this　great　reflex　movement　from　West　to　East　than

to　the　other　two。　The　simple　facts　attest　that　in

the　seventh　century；　when　our　earliest　existing

Irish　MSS。　were　written；　we　find　not　only　a　style

of　writing　（or　indeed　two）　distinctive；　national；

and　of　a　high　type　of　excellence；　but　also　a　school

of　illumination　which；　in　the　combined　lines　of

mechanical　accuracy　and　intricacy；　of　fertile　invention

of　form　and　figure　and　of　striking　arrangements

of　colour；　has　never　been　surpassed。　And

this　is　in　the　seventh　centurythe　nadir　of　the　rest

of　Europe！



〃It　is　certain　that　Alcuin　was　trained　in　Hiberno…

Saxon　calligraphy；　so　that　we　may　be　surprised　to

find　that　the　writing　which；　under　Charles　the　Great；

he　developed　at　Tours；　bears　hardly　a　trace　of　the

style　to　which　he　was　accustomed。　En　revanche；

in　the　ornamentation　and　illumination　of　the　great

Carolingian　volumes　which　have　come　down　to　our

times；　we　find　those　constant；　persistent　traces　of

English　and　Irish　work　which　we　seek　for　in　vain

in　the　plainer　writing。



〃This　minuscule　superseded　all　others　almost

throughout　the　empire　of　Charles　the　Great；　and

during　the　ninth；　tenth；　and　eleventh　centuries

underwent　very　little　modification。　Even　in　the　two

next　centuries；　though　it　is　subject　to　general

modification；　national　differences　are　hardly　observable；

and　we　can　only　distinguish　two　large　divisions；

the　group　of　Northern　Europe　（England；　North

France；　Italy；　and　Spain）。　The　two　exceptions

are；　that　Germany；　both　in　writing　and　painting；

has　always　stood　apart；　and　lags　behind　the　other

nations　of　Western　Europe　in　its　development；　and

that　England　retains　her　Hiberno…Saxon　hand　till

after　the　Conquest　of　1066。　It　may　be　noted　that

the　twelfth　century　produced　the　finest　writing　ever

knowna　large；　free　and　flowing　form　of　the　minuscule

of　Tours。　In　the　next　century　comes　in　the　angular

Gothic　hand；　the　difference　between　which　and

the　twelfth　century　hand　may　be　fairly　understood

by　a　comparison　of　ordinary　German　and　Roman

type。　In　the　thirteenth；　fourteenth；　and　fifteenth

centuries　the　writing　of　each　century　may　be

discerned；　while　the　general　tendency　is　towards

complication；　use　of　abbreviations　and　contractions；

and　development　of　unessential　parasitic　forms　of

letters。



〃The　Book　of　Kells；　the　chief　treasure　of　Trinity

College；　Dublin；　is　so…called　from　having　been

long　preserved　at　the　Monastery　of　Kells；　founded

by　Columba　himself。　Stolen　from　thence；　it　eventually

passed　into　Archbishop　Ussher's　hands；　and；

with　other　parts　of　his　library；　to　Dublin。　The

volume　contains　the　Four　Gospels　in　Latin；　ornamented

with　extraordinary　freedom；　elaboration；　and

beauty。　Written　apparently　in　the　seventh　century；

it　exhibits；　both　in　form　and　colour；　all　the

signs　of　the　full　development　and　maturity　of　the

Irish　style；　and　must　of　necessity　have　been　preceded

by　several　generations　of　artistic　workers；

who　founded　and　improved　this　particular　school

of　art。　The　following　words　of　Professor　Westwood；

who　first　drew　attention　to　the　peculiar　excellences

of　this　volume；　will　justify　tile　terms　made

use　of　above：　'This　copy　of　the　Gospels；　traditionally

asserted　to　have　belonged　to　Columba；　is

unquestionably　the　most　elaborately　executed　MS。

of　early　art　now　in　existence；　far　excelling；　in　the

gigantic　size　of　the　letters　in　the　frontispieces　of

the　Gospel；　the　excessive　minuteness　of　the　ornamental

details；　the　number　of　its　decorations；　the

fineness　of　the　writing；　and　the　endless　variety　of

initial　capital　letters　with　which　every　page　is

ornamented；　the　famous　Gospels　of　Lindisfarne　in　the

Cottonian　Library。　But　this　MS。　is　still　more　valuable

on　account　of　the　various　pictorial　representations

of　different　scenes　in　the　life　of　our　Saviour；

delineated　in　a　style　totally　unlike　that　of　every

other　school。'　〃







CHAPTER　VII。



EARLY　MEDIAEVAL　INK。



CONTROVERSIES　AMONG　HEBREW　SCHOLARS　RELATING　TO

RITUALISTIC　INKSTHE　CLASS　OF　INKS　EMPLOYED　BY

THE　FRENCH　AND　GERMAN　JEWSCONVENTION　OF

REPRESENTATIVES　FROM　JEWISH　CENTERSSUBMISSION

OF　THEIR　DIFFERENCES　TO　MAIMONIDESHE　DEFINES

TALMUDIC　INKSIXTH　CENTURY　REFERENCE　TO

〃GALL〃　INKASSERTION　OF　HOTZ…OSTERWALD　THAT

EXCLUSIVE　OF　THE　INDIAN　INK；　THE　WRITING　PIGMENTS

OF　ANTIQUITY　HAVE　NEVER　BEEN　INVESTIGATEDHIS

BELIEF　THAT　YEAST　FORMED　A　PORTION

OF　THEMSOME　OTHER　OBSERVATIONS　ON　THIS

SUBJECTANCIENT　FORMULAS　ABOUT　THE　LEES　OF

WINE　IN　INK…MAKINGCOMMENTS　ON　INK…MAKING　BY

PLINYANCIENT　FORMULA　OF　POMEGRANATE　INK

SECRETA　BY　THE　MONK　THEOPHILUSWHAT　THE；

THORN　TREE　HE　REFERS　TO　REALLY　ISIDENTITY　OF

THE　MYROBOLAM　INK　OF　THE　MOST　REMOTE　ANTIQUITY

WITH　THE　POMEGRANATE　INK　OF　THE　MIDDLE　AGES

THE　USES　OF　THE　ACACIA　TREE。



MOST　of　the　documents　of　early　mediaeval　times

which　remain　to　us　containing　ink　in　fairly　good　condition；

like　charters；　protocols；　bulls；　wills；　diplomas；

and　the　like；　were　written　or　engrossed　with　〃Indian〃

ink；　in　which　respect　we　of　the　present　century　continue

to　follow　such　established　precedent　when　preparing

important　written　instruments。　It　is　not

remarkable；　therefore；　that　the　black　inks　of　the

seventh；　eighth；　ninth　and　tenth　centuries　preserve

their　blackness　so　much　better　than　many　belonging

to　succeeding　ages；　including　a　new　class　of　inks　which

could　not　stand　the　test　of　time。



During　the　twelfth　and　first　years　of　the　thirteenth

centuries　there　were　bitter　controversies　among　Talmudic

（Hebrew）　scholars；　relative　to　the　character　of

the　ink　to　be　employed　in　the　preparation　of　ritualistic

writings。　Nice　distinctions　were　drawn　as　to　the

real　meaning　of　the　word　deyo　as　understood　by　the

Jews　of　the　western　part　of　the　world；　and　the　Arabic

word　alchiber；　as　then　understood　nearer　Palestine

and　the　other　eastern　countries。



The　French　Jews　were　using　〃tusche〃　（typical　of

the　〃Indian〃　ink）；　while　the　Germans　were　employing

〃pomegranate〃　and　〃gall〃　inks。　Representatives

from　interested　religious　Jewish　centers　came

together　and　resolved　to　submit　their　differences　for

final　adjustment　to　Maimonides；　born　in　Spain；　A。　D。

1130　；　and　died　A。　D。　1204the　then　greatest　living

Hebrew　theologian　and　authority　on　biblical　and

rabbinical　laws。　Discarding　all　side　issues；　their　differences

were　seemingly　incorporated　into　three　questions

and　thus　propounded　to　him：



1。　Is　the　Talmudic　deyo　identical　with　alchiber？



2。　Of　what　ingredient　should　the　Talmudic　deyo

consist；　if　it　is　not　the　same　as　alchiber？



3。　Is　alchiber　to　be　understood　as　relating　to　the

gall…apple　and　chalkanthum　（blue　vitriol）？



To　the　first　and　third　questions　Maimonides　declared

that　deyo　and　alchiber　were　not　identical；

and　for　the　reasons　that　the　Talmud　declares　deyo　to

be　a　writing　material　which　does　not　remain　on　the

surface　on　which　it　is　placed　and　to　be　easily　effaced。

On　the　other　hand　alchiber　contains　gum　and　other

things　which　causes　it　to　adhere　to　the　writing　surface。



To　the　second　question　he　affirmed　that　the　Talmud

distinguishes　a　double　kind　of　deyo；　one　containing

little　or　no　gum　and　being　a　fluid；　and　the　other　referring

to　〃pulverized　coal　of　the　vine；　soot　from

burning　olive　oil；　tar；　rosin　and　honey；　pressed　into

plates　to　be　dissolved　in　water　when　wanted　for　use。〃

Furthermore；　while　the　Talmud　excludes　the　use　of

certain　inks　of　which　iron　vitriol　was　one；　it　does　not

exclude　atramentum；　（chalkanthum；　copper　vitriol）；

because　the　Talmud　never　speaks　of　it。　He　insisted

that　the　Talmud　requires　a　dry　ink　（deyo）。



As　one　of　the　last　entries　made　in　the　Talmud　（a

great　collection　of　legal　decisions　by　the　ancient

Rabbis；　Hebrew　traditions；　etc。；　and　believed　to　have

been　commenced　in　the　second　century　of　the　Christian

era）　is　claimed　to　belong　to　the　sixth　century；

mentions　gall…apples　and　iron　（copper）　vitriol；　it　must

have　referred　to　〃gall〃　ink。　Further　investigation

discloses　the　fact　that　such　galls　were　of　Chinese　origin

and　as　we　know　they　do　not　contain　the　necessary

ferment　which　the　aleppo　and　other　galls　possess　for

inducing　a　transformation　of　the　tannin　into　gallic

acid；　no　complete　union　could　therefore　obtain。

Hence　the　value　of　this　composition　was　limited　until

the　time　when　yeast　and　other　materials　were　introduced

to　overcome　its　deficiencies。



Hotz…Osterwald　of　Zurich；　antiquarian　and　scholar；

has　asserted　that　with　the　exception　of　the　carbon

inks　employed　on　papyrus；　the　writing　pigments　of