the origins of contemporary france-5-第39部分

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they　were　judged　to　be　naturally　unsound　and　were　condemned；　in

principle；　because　of　the　deviations　and　laws　which　the　public　power

had　imposed　on　their　development。



Suddenly；　the　public　power；　which　had　produced　the　evil　by　its

intervention；　pretended　to　remove　it　by　a　still　greater　intervention：

in　1789　it　again　intruded　itself　on　corporate　bodies；　not　to　reform

them；　not　restore　each　to　its　proper　channel；　not　to　confine　each　with

proper　limits；　but　to　destroy　them　outright。　Through　a　radical；

universal；　and　extraordinary　amputation；　the　like　of　which　is　not

mentioned　in　history；　with　the　rashness　of　the　theorist　and　the

brutality　of　the　butcher；　the　legislator　extirpated　them　all；　as　far

as　he　could；　even　including　the　family；　while　his　fury　extended　beyond

the　present　into　the　future。　To　legal　abolition　and　total

confiscation；　he　added　the　systematic　hostility　of　his　preventive

laws；　together　with　a　fresh　obstacle　in　the　shape　of　his　new

constructions；　during　three　successive　legislatures＇7＇　he　provided

against　their　future　regeneration；　against　the　permanent　instincts　and

necessities　which　might　one　day　resuscitate　stable　families；　distinct

provinces；　and　an　orthodox　church；　against　artistic；　industrial；

financial；　charitable；　and　educational　corporations；　against　every

spontaneous　and　organized　group；　and　against　every　collective；　local；

or　special　enterprise。　In　place　of　these　he　installed　synthetic　bodies

or　institutions：



*　a　Church　without　believers；

*　schools　without　pupils；

*　hospitals　without　incomes；

*　a　geometrical　hierarchy　of　improvised　powers　in　the　commune；

district；　and　department；



all　badly　organized；　badly　adjusted；　out　of　gear　at　the　start；

overwhelmed　with　political　functions；　as　incapable　of　performing　their

proper　duties　as　their　supplementary　duties；　and；　from　the　very

beginning；　either　powerless　or　mischievous。＇8＇　　Changes　repeatedly

marred　by　arbitrariness　from　above　or　from　below；　set　aside　or

perverted　now　by　the　mob　and　again　by　the　government；　inert　in　the

country；　oppressive　in　the　towns；　we　have　seen　the　state　into　which

they　had　fallen　at　the　end　of　the　Directory；　how；　instead　of　a　refuge

for　liberty；　they　had　become　haunts　of　tyranny　or　sinks　of　egoism；

why；　in　1800；　they　were　as　much　decried　as　their　predecessors　in　1788；

why　their　two　successive　props；　the　old　one　and　the　most　recent；

historic　custom　and　popular　election；　were　now　discredited　and　no

longer　resorted　to。　…　After　the　disastrous　experience　of　the　monarchy

and　the　still　worse　experience　of　the　republic；　another　prop　had　to　be

sought　for；　but　only　one　remained；　that　of　the　central　power；　the　only

one　visible　and　which　seemed　substantial；　in　default　of　others　they

had　recourse　to　this。＇9＇　　In　any　event；　no　protestation；　even　secret

and　moral；　any　longer　prevented　the　State　from　attaching　other

corporate　bodies　to　itself；　in　order　to　use　them　for　its　own　purposes

as　instruments　or　appendages。



II。　Doctrines　of　Government。



The　theory。　…　Agreement　of　speculative　ideas　with　practical

necessities。　…　Public　rights　under　the　Ancient　Regime。　…　The　King's

three　original　rights。　…　Labors　of　the　jurists　in　extending　royal

prerogatives。　…　Historical　impediments。　…　The　primitive　or　ulterior

limits　of　royal　power。　…　The　philosophic　and　revolutionary　principle

of　popular　sovereignty。　…　Unlimited　extension　of　State　power。　…

Application　to　spontaneous　bodies。　…　Convergence　of　ancient　and　new

doctrines。　…　Corporations　considered　as　creations　of　the　public　power。

…　Centralization　through　the　universal　intervention　of　the　State。



The　theory　here　agreed　with　the　need；　and　not　alone　the　recent　theory；

but　again　the　ancient　theory。　Long　before　1789；　public　right　had

elevated　the　prerogative　of　centralized　power　into　a　dogma　and

exaggerated　it　beyond　measure。



There　are　three　titles　under　which　this　power　was　conferred。　…　Feudal

seignior；　and　suzerain；　that　is　to　say；　commander…in…chief　of　the

great　resident　army　whose　willing　forces　had　served　to　reconstruct

society　in　the　ninth　century；　the　King；　through　the　remotest　of　his

origins　…　that　is　to　say；　through　the　immemorial　confusion　of

sovereignty　with　property　…　was　the　owner　of　France；　the　same　as　an

individual　owns　his　private　domain。＇10＇　…　Married；　moreover；　to　the

Church　since　the　first　Capets；　consecrated　and　crowned　at　Rheims；

anointed　by　God　like　a　second　David；＇11＇　not　only　was　he　believed　to

be　authorized　from　on　high；　like　other　monarchs；　but；　from　Louis　le

Gros；　and　especially　after　the　time　of　saint　Louis；　he　appeared　as　the

delegate　from　on　high；　invested　with　a　laic　sacerdotalism；　clothed

with　moral　power；　minister　of　eternal　justice；　redresser　of　wrongs；

protector　of　the　weak；　benefactor　of　the　humble　…　in　short；　〃His　Most

Christian　Majesty。〃　…　At　length；　after　the　thirteenth　century；　the

recent　discovery　and　diligent　study　of　the　ancient　codes　of　Justinian

had　shown　in　his　person　the　successor　of　the　Caesars　of　Rome　and　of

the　Emperors　of　Constantinople。　According　to　these　codes　the　people　in

a　body　had　transferred　its　rights　to　the　prince；　now；　in　antique

cities；　all　rights　were　vested　in　the　community；　and　the　individual

had　none；＇12＇　accordingly；　through　this　transfer；　all　rights；　public

or　private；　passed　into　the　hands　of　the　prince；　henceforth　he　could

exercise　them　as　he　pleased；　under　no　restriction　and　no　control。　He

was　above　the　law；　since　he　made　it；　his　powers　were　illimitable　and

his　decision　absolute。＇13＇



On　this　triple　frame　the　jurists；　like　State　spiders；　had；　from

Philippe　le　Bel　down；　spun　their　web；　and　the　instinctive　concordance

of　their　hereditary　efforts　had　attached　all　its　threads　to　the

omnipotence　of　the　King。　…　Being　jurisconsults　…　that　is　to　say；

logicians　…　they　were　obliged　to　deduce；　and　their　minds　naturally

recurred　to　the　unique　and　rigid　principle　to　which　they　might　attach

their　arguments。　…　As　advocates　and　councilors　of　the　crown　they

espoused　the　case　of　their　client　and；　through　professional　zeal；

derived　or　forced　precedents　and　texts　to　his　advantage。　…　By　virtue

of　being　administrators　and　judges　the　grandeur　of　their　master

constituted　their　grandeur；　and　personal　interest　counseled　them　to

expand　a　prerogative　in　which；　through　delegation；　they　took　part。　…

Hence；　during　four　centuries；　they　had　spun　the　tissue　of　〃regalian

rights；〃　the　great　net　in　the　meshes　of　which；　since　Louis　XIV。；　all

lives　found　themselves　caught。＇14＇



Nevertheless；　however　tightly　spun　was　the　web；　there　were　openings　in

it；　or；　at　least；　very　weak　spots。　…　And　first；　of　the　consequences

flowing　from　these　three　principles　in　their　hands；　two　of　them　had

hindered　the　third　from　unwinding　its　skein　to　the　end：　owing　to　the

fact　that　the　King　was　formerly　Count　de　Paris　and　Abbot　of　St。　Denis；

he　could　not　become　a　veritable　Augustus；　an　authentic　Diocletian：　his

two　French　titles　limited　his　Roman　title。　Without　regard　to　the　laws；

so…called　fundamental；　which　imposed　his　heir　on　him　beforehand；　also

the　entire　line　of　his　successive　heirs；　the　tutor；　male　or　female；　of

his　minor　heir；　and　which；　if　he　derogated　from　immemorial　usage；

annulled　his　will　like　that　of　a　private　individual；　his　quality　of

suzerain　and　that　of　Most　Christian；　were　for　him　a　double　impediment。

As　hereditary　general　of　the　feudal　army　he　was　bound　to　consider　and

respect　the　hereditary　officers　of　the　same　army；　his　old　peers　and

companions　in　arms　…　that　is　to　say；　the　nobles。　As　outside　bishop；　he

owed　to　the　Church　not　alone　his　spiritual　orthodoxy；　but；　again；　his

temporal　esteem；　his　active　zeal；　and　the　aid　furnished　him　by　his

secular　arm。　Hence；　in　applied　right；　the　numerous　privileges　of　the

nobles　and　the　Church；　so　many　immunities　and　even　liberties；　so　many

remains　of　antique　local　independence；　and　even　of　antique　local

sovereignty；＇15＇　so　many　prerogatives；　honorific　or　serviceable；

maintained　by　the　law　and　by　the　tribunals。　On　this　side；　the　meshes

of　the　monarchical　netting　had　not　been　well　knit　or　remained　loose；

and　the　same　elsewhere；　with　openings　more　or　less　wide；　in　the　five

provincial　governments　（états）；　in　the　Pyrenees　districts；　in　Alsace；

at　Strasbourg；　but　especially　in　Languedoc　and　in　Brittany；　where　the

pact　of　incorporation；　through　a　sort　of　bilateral　contract；

associated　together　on　the　same　parchment　and　under　the　same　seal　the

franchises　of　the　province　and　the　sovereignty　of　the　King。



Add　to　these　original　lacunae　the　hole　made　by　the　Prince　himself　in

his　net　already　woven：　he　had　with　his　own　hand　torn　away　its　meshes；

and　by　thousands。　Extravagant　to　excess　and　always　needy；　he　converted

everything　into　money；　even　his　own　rights；　and；　in　the　military

order；　in　the　civil　order；　in　commerce　and　in　industry；　in　the

administration；　in　the　judicature；　and　in　the　finances。　From　one　end

of　the　territory　to　the　other；