decline of science in england-第25部分
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In confirmation of this may be adduced the opinion of the late M。 Delambre； which is the more important； from the statement it contains relative to the necessity of publishing all the observations which have been made。
〃Mais quelque soit le parti que l'on prefere； il me semble qu'on doit tout publier。 Ces irregularites memes sont des faits qu'il importe de connoitre。 LES SOINS LES PLUS ATTENTIFS N'EN SAUROIENT PRESERVER LES OBSERVATEURS LES PLUS EXERCES； et celui qui ne produiroit que des angles toujours parfaitment d'accord auroit ete singulierement bien servi par les circonstances ou ne seroit pas bien sincere。〃BASE DU SYSTEME METRIQUE； Discours Preliminaire； p。 158。
This desire for extreme accuracy has called away the attention of experimenters from points of far greater importance； and it seems to have been too much overlooked in the present day； that genius marks its tract； not by the observation of quantities inappreciable to any but the acutest senses； but by placing Nature in such circumstances； that she is forced to record her minutest variations on so magnified a scale； that an observer； possessing ordinary faculties； shall find them legibly written。 He who can see portions of matter beyond the ken of the rest of his species； confers an obligation on them； by recording what he sees； but their knowledge depends both on his testimony and on his judgment。 He who contrives a method of rendering such atoms visible to ordinary observers； communicates to mankind an instrument of discovery； and stamps his own observations with a character； alike independent of testimony or of judgment。
SECTION 2。
ON THE ART OF OBSERVING。
The remarks in this section are not proposed for the assistance of those who are already observers； but are intended to show to persons not familiar with the subject； that in observations demanding no unrivalled accuracy； the principles of common sense may be safely trusted； and that any gentleman of liberal education may； by perseverance and attention； ascertain the limits within which he may trust both his instrument and himself。
If the instrument is a divided one； the first thing is to learn to read the verniers。 If the divisions are so fine that the coincidence is frequently doubtful； the best plan will be for the learner to get some acquaintance who is skilled in the use of instruments； and having set the instrument at hazard； to write down the readings of the verniers； and then request his friend to do the same； whenever there is any difference； he should carefully examine the doubtful one； and ask his friend to point out the minute peculiarities on which he founds his decision。 This should be repeated frequently； and after some practice； he should note how many times in a hundred his reading differs from his friend's； and also how many divisions they usually differ。
The next point is； to ascertain the precision with which the learner can bisect an object with the wires of the telescope。 This can be done without assistance。 It is not necessary even to adjust the instrument； but merely to point it to a distant object。 When it bisects any remarkable point； read off the verniers； and write down the result； then displace the telescope a little； and adjust it again。 A series of such observations will show the confidence which is due to the observer's eye in bisecting an object； and also in reading the verniers； and as the first direction gave him some measure of the latter； he may； in a great measure； appreciate his skill in the former。 He should also； when he finds a deviation in the reading； return to the telescope； and satisfy himself if he has made the bisection as complete as he can。 In general； the student should practise each adjustment separately； and write down the results wherever he can measure its deviations。
Having thus practised the adjustments； the next step is to make an observation； but in order to try both himself and the instrument； let him take the altitude of some fixed object； a terrestrial one； and having registered the result； let him derange the adjustment； and repeat the process fifty or a hundred times。 This will not merely afford him excellent practice； but enable him to judge of his own skill。
The first step in the use of every instrument； is to find the limits within which its employer can measure the SAME OBJECT UNDER THE SAME CIRCUMSTANCES。 It is only from a knowledge of this； that he can have confidence in his measures of the SAME OBJECT UNDER DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES； and after that； of DIFFERENT OBJECTS UNDER DIFFERENT CIRCUMSTANCES。
These principles are applicable to almost all instruments。 If a person is desirous of ascertaining heights by a mountain barometer； let him begin by adjusting the instrument in his own study； and having made the upper contact； let him write down the reading of the vernier； and then let him derange the UPPER adjustment ONLY； re…adjust； and repeat the reading。 When he is satisfied about the limits within which he can make that adjustment； let him do the same repeatedly with the lower； but let him not； until he knows his own errors in reading and adjusting； pronounce upon those of the instrument。 In the case of a barometer； he must also be assured； that the temperature of the mercury does not change during the interval。
A friend once brought to me a beautifully constructed piece of mechanism； for marking minute portions of time； the three… hundredth parts of a second were indicated by it。 It was a kind of watch； with a pin for stopping one of the hands。 I proposed that we should each endeavour to stop it twenty times in succession； at the same point。 We were both equally unpractised； and our first endeavours showed that we could not be confident of the twentieth part of a second。 In fact； both the time occupied in causing the extremities of the fingers to obey the volition； as well as the time employed in compressing the flesh before the fingers acted on the stop； appeared to influence the accuracy of our observations。 From some few experiments I made； I thought I perceived that the rapidity of the transmission of the effects of the will； depended on the state of fatigue or health of the body。 If any one were to make experiments on this subject； it might be interesting； to compare the rapidity of the transmission of volition in different persons； with the time occupied in obliterating an impression made on one of the senses of the same persons。 For example； by having a mechanism to make a piece of ignited charcoal revolve with different degrees of velocity； some persons will perceive a continuous circle of light before others； whose retina does not retain so long impressions that are made upon it。
SECTION 3。
ON THE FRAUDS OF OBSERVERS。
Scientific inquiries are more exposed than most others to the inroads of pretenders； and I feel that I shall deserve the thanks of all who really value truth； by stating some of the methods of deceiving practised by unworthy claimants for its honours； whilst the mere circumstance of their arts being known may deter future offenders。
There are several species of impositions that have been practised in science； which are but little known； except to the initiated； and which it may perhaps be possible to render quite intelligible to ordinary understandings。 These may be classed under the heads of hoaxing； forging； trimming； and cooking。
OF HOAXING。 This； perhaps； will be better explained by an example。 In the year 1788； M。 Gioeni； a knight of Malta； published at Naples an account of a new family of Testacea； of which he described； with great minuteness； one species； the specific name of which has been taken from its habitat； and the generic he took from his own family； calling it Gioenia Sicula。 It consisted of two rounded triangular valves； united by the body of the animal to a smaller valve in front。 He gave figures of the animal； and of its parts； described its structure； its mode of advancing along the sand； the figure of the tract it left； and estimated the velocity of its course at about two…thirds of an inch per minute。 He then described the structure of the shell； which he treated with nitric acid； and found it approach nearer to the nature of bone than any other shell。
The editors of the ENCYCLOPEDIE METHODIQUE； have copied this description； and have given figures of the Gioenia Sicula。 The fact； however； is； that no such animal exists； but that the knight of Malta； finding on the Sicilian shores the three internal bones of one of the species of Bulla； of which some are found on the south…western coast of England； ＇Bulla lignaria＇ described and figured these bones most accurately； and drew the whole of the rest of the description from the stores of his own imagination。
Such frauds are far from justifiable； the only excuse which has been made for them is； when they have been practised on scientific academies which had reached the period of dotage。 It should however be remembered； that the productions of nature are so various； that mere strangeness is very far from sufficient to render doubtful the existence of any creature for which there is evidence； ＇The number of vertebrae in the neck of the plesiosaurus is a strange but ascertained fact
