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standing　army。　When　he　was　at　peace；　which　he　was　very　seldom；

and　never　for　any　long　time　together；　he　was　careful　not　to

disband　that　army。　It　vanquished　and　subdued；　after　a　long　and

violent　struggle；　indeed；　the　gallant　and　well　exercised　militias

of　the　principal　republics　of　ancient　Greece；　and　afterwards；

with　very　little　struggle；　the　effeminate　and　ill…exercised

militia　of　the　great　Persian　empire。　The　fall　of　the　Greek

republics　and　of　the　Persian　empire　was　the　effect　of　the

irresistible　superiority　which　a　standing　army　has　over　every

sort　of　militia。　It　is　the　first　great　revolution　in　the　affairs

of　mankind　of　which　history　has　preserved　any　distinct　or

circumstantial　account。

　　　　　The　fall　of　Carthage；　and　the　consequent　elevation　of　Rome；

is　the　second。　All　the　varieties　in　the　fortune　of　those　two

famous　republics　may　very　well　be　accounted　for　from　the　same

cause。

　　　　　From　the　end　of　the　first　to　the　beginning　of　the　second

Carthaginian　war　the　armies　of　Carthage　were　continually　in　the

field；　and　employed　under　three　great　generals；　who　succeeded　one

another　in　the　command：　Hamilcar；　his　son…in…law　Hasdrubal；　and

his　son　Hannibal；　first　in　chastising　their　own　rebellious

slaves；　afterwards　in　subduing　the　revolted　nations　of　Africa；

and；　lastly；　in　conquering　the　great　kingdom　of　Spain。　The　army

which　Hannibal　led　from　Spain　into　Italy　must　necessarily；　in

those　different　wars；　have　been　gradually　formed　to　the　exact

discipline　of　a　standing　army。　The　Romans；　in　the　meantime；

though　they　had　not　been　altogether　at　peace；　yet　they　had　not；

during　this　period；　been　engaged　in　any　war　of　very　great

consequence；　and　their　military　discipline；　it　is　generally　said；

was　a　good　deal　relaxed。　The　Roman　armies　which　Hannibal

encountered　at　Trebia；　Thrasymenus；　and　Cannae　were　militia

opposed　to　a　standing　army。　This　circumstance；　it　is　probable；

contributed　more　than　any　other　to　determine　the　fate　of　those

battles。

　　　　　The　standing　army　which　Hannibal　left　behind　him　in　Spain

had　the　like　superiority　over　the　militia　which　the　Romans　sent

to　oppose　it；　and　in　a　few　years；　under　the　command　of　his

brother；　the　younger　Hasdrubal；　expelled　them　almost　entirely

from　that　country。

　　　　　Hannibal　was　ill　supplied　from　home。　The　Roman　militia；

being　continually　in　the　field；　became　in　the　progress　of　the　war

a　well　disciplined　and　well…exercised　standing　army；　and　the

superiority　of　Hannibal　grew　every　day　less　and　less。　Hasdrubal

judged　it　necessary　to　lead　the　whole；　or　almost　the　whole　of　the

standing　army　which　he　commanded　in　Spain；　to　the　assistance　of

his　brother　in　Italy。　In　this　march　he　is　said　to　have　been

misled　by　his　guides；　and　in　a　country　which　he　did　not　know；　was

surprised　and　attacked　by　another　standing　army；　in　every　respect

equal　or　superior　to　his　own；　and　was　entirely　defeated。

　　　　　When　Hasdrubal　had　left　Spain；　the　great　Scipio　found

nothing　to　oppose　him　but　a　militia　inferior　to　his　own。　He

conquered　and　subdued　that　militia；　and；　in　the　course　of　the

war；　his　own　militia　necessarily　became　a　well…disciplined　and

well…exercised　standing　army。　That　standing　army　was　afterwards

carried　to　Africa；　where　it　found　nothing　but　a　militia　to　oppose

it。　In　order　to　defend　Carthage　it　became　necessary　to　recall　the

standing　army　of　Hannibal。　The　disheartened　and　frequently

defeated　African　militia　joined　it；　and；　at　the　battle　of　Zama；

composed　the　greater　part　of　the　troops　of　Hannibal。　The　event　of

that　day　determined　the　fate　of　the　two　rival　republics。

　　　　　From　the　end　of　the　second　Carthaginian　war　till　the　fall　of

the　Roman　republic；　the　armies　of　Rome　were　in　every　respect

standing　armies。　The　standing　army　of　Macedon　made　some

resistance　to　their　arms。　In　the　height　of　their　grandeur　it　cost

them　two　great　wars；　and　three　great　battles；　to　subdue　that

little　kingdom；　of　which　the　conquest　would　probably　have　been

still　more　difficult　had　it　not　been　for　the　cowardice　of　its

last　king。　The　militias　of　all　the　civilised　nations　of　the

ancient　world；　of　Greece；　of　Syria；　and　of　Egypt；　made　but　a

feeble　resistance　to　the　standing　armies　of　Rome。　The　militias　of

some　barbarous　nations　defended　themselves　much　better。　The

Scythian　or　Tartar　militia；　which　Mithridates　drew　from　the

countries　north　of　the　Euxine　and　Caspian　seas；　were　the　most

formidable　enemies　whom　the　Romans　had　to　encounter　after　the

second　Carthaginian　war。　The　Parthian　and　German　militias；　too；

were　always　respectable；　and　upon　several　occasions　gained　very

considerable　advantages　over　the　Roman　armies。　In　general；

however；　and　when　the　Roman　armies　were　well　commanded；　they

appear　to　have　been　very　much　superior；　and　if　the　Romans　did　not

pursue　the　final　conquest　either　of　Parthia　or　Germany；　it　was

probably　because　they　judged　that　it　was　not　worth　while　to　add

those　two　barbarous　countries　to　an　empire　which　was　already　too

large。　The　ancient　Parthians　appear　to　have　been　a　nation　of

Scythian　or　Tartar　extraction；　and　to　have　always　retained　a　good

deal　of　the　manners　of　their　ancestors。　The　ancient　Germans　were；

like　the　Scythians　or　Tartars；　a　nation　of　wandering　shepherds；

who　went　to　war　under　the　same　chiefs　whom　they　were　accustomed

to　follow　in　peace。　Their　militia　was　exactly　of　the　same　kind

with　that　of　the　Scythians　or　Tartars；　from　whom；　too；　they　were

probably　descended。

　　　　　Many　different　causes　contributed　to　relax　the　discipline　of

the　Roman　armies。　Its　extreme　severity　was；　perhaps；　one　of　those

causes。　In　the　days　of　their　grandeur；　when　no　enemy　appeared

capable　of　opposing　them；　their　heavy　armour　was　laid　aside　as

unnecessarily　burdensome；　their　labourious　exercises　were

neglected　as　unnecessarily　toilsome。　Under　the　Roman　emperors；

besides；　the　standing　armies　of　Rome；　those　particularly　which

guarded　the　German　and　Pannonian　frontiers；　became　dangerous　to

their　masters；　against　whom　they　used　frequently　to　set　up　their

own　generals。　In　order　to　render　them　less　formidable；　according

to　some　authors；　Dioclesian；　according　to　others；　Constantine；

first　withdrew　them　from　the　frontier；　where　they　had　always

before　been　encamped　in　great　bodies；　generally　of　two　or　three

legions　each；　and　dispersed　them　in　small　bodies　through　the

different　provincial　towns；　from　whence　they　were　scarce　ever

removed　but　when　it　became　necessary　to　repel　an　invasion。　Small

bodies　of　soldiers　quartered；　in　trading　and　manufacturing　towns；

and　seldom　removed　from　those　quarters；　became　themselves

tradesmen；　artificers；　and　manufacturers。　The　civil　came　to

predominate　over　the　military　character；　and　the　standing　armies

of　Rome　gradually　degenerated　into　a　corrupt；　neglected；　and

undisciplined　militia；　incapable　of　resisting　the　attack　of　the

German　and　Scythian　militias；　which　soon　afterwards　invaded　the

western　empire。　It　was　only　by　hiring　the　militia　of　some　of

those　nations　to　oppose　to　that　of　others　that　the　emperors　were

for　some　time　able　to　defend　themselves。　The　fall　of　the　western

empire　is　the　third　great　revolution　in　the　affairs　of　mankind　of

which　ancient　history　has　preserved　any　distinct　or

circumstantial　account。　It　was　brought　about　by　the　irresistible

superiority　which　the　militia　of　a　barbarous　has　over　that　of　a

civilised　nation；　which　the　militia　of　a　nation　of　shepherds　has

over　that　of　a　nation　of　husbandmen；　artificers；　and

manufacturers。　The　victories　which　have　been　gained　by　militias

have　generally　been；　not　over　standing　armies；　but　over　other

militias　in　exercise　and　discipline　inferior　to　themselves。　Such

were　the　victories　which　the　Greek　militia　gained　over　that　of

the　Persian　empire；　and　such　too　were　those　which　in　later　times

the　Swiss　militia　gained　over　that　of　the　Austrians　and

Burgundians。

　　　　　The　military　force　of　the　German　and　Scythian　nations　who

established　themselves　upon　the　ruins　of　the　western　empire

continued　for　some　time　to　be　of　the　same　kind　in　their　new

settlements　as　it　had　been　in　their　original　country。　It　was　a

militia　of　shepherds　and　husbandmen；　which；　in　time　of　war；　took

the　field　under　the　command　of　the　same　chieftains　whom　it　was

accustomed　to　obey　in　peace。　It　was；　therefore；　tolerably　well

exercised；　and　tolerably　well　disciplined。　As　arts　and　industry

advanced；　however；　the　authority　of　the　chieftains　gradually

decayed；　and　the　great　body　of　the　people　had　less　time　to　spare

for　military　exercises。　Both　the　discipline　and　the　exercise　of

the　feudal　militia；　therefore；　went　gradually　to　ruin；　and

standing　armies　were　gradually　introduced　to　supply　the　place　of

it。　When　the　expedient　of　a　standing　army；　besides；　had　once　been

adopted　by　one　civilised　nation；　it　became　necessary　that　all　its

neighbours　should　follow　their　example。　They　soon　found　that

their　safety　depended　upon　their　doing　so；　and　that　their　own

militia　was　altogether　inca