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afterwards　in　several　other　cities。　The　state；　however；　seems

never　to　have　encouraged　them　further　than　by　assigning　some　of

them　a　particular　place　to　teach　in；　which　was　sometimes　done；

too；　by　private　donors。　The　state　seems　to　have　assigned　the

Academy　to　Plato；　the　Lyceum　to　Aristotle；　and　the　Portico　to

Zeno　of　Citta；　the　founder　of　the　Stoics。　But　Epicurus　bequeathed

his　gardens　to　his　own　school。　Till　about　the　time　of　Marcus

Antonius；　however；　no　teacher　appears　to　have　had　any　salary　from

the　public；　or　to　have　had　any　other　emoluments　but　what　arose

from　the　honoraries　or　fees　of　his　scholars。　The　bounty　which

that　philosophical　emperor；　as　we　learn　from　Lucian；　bestowed

upon　one　of　the　teachers　of　philosophy；　probably　lasted　no　longer

than　his　own　life。　There　was　nothing　equivalent　to　the　privileges

of　graduation；　and　to　have　attended　any　of　those　schools　was　not

necessary；　in　order　to　be　permitted　to　practise　any　particular

trade　or　profession。　If　the　opinion　of　their　own　utility　could

not　draw　scholars　to　them；　the　law　neither　forced　anybody　to　go

to　them　nor　rewarded　anybody　for　having　gone　to　them。　The

teachers　had　no　jurisdiction　over　their　pupils；　nor　any　other

authority　besides　that　natural　authority；　which　superior　virtue

and　abilities　never　fail　to　procure　from　young　people　towards

those　who　are　entrusted　with　any　part　of　their　education。

　　　　　At　Rome；　the　study　of　the　civil　law　made　a　part　of　the

education；　not　of　the　greater　part　of　the　citizens；　but　of　some

particular　families。　The　young　people；　however；　who　wished　to

acquire　knowledge　in　the　law；　had　no　public　school　to　go　to；　and

had　no　other　method　of　studying　it　than　by　frequenting　the

company　of　such　of　their　relations　and　friends　as　were　supposed

to　understand　it。　It　is　perhaps　worth　while　to　remark；　that

though　the　Laws　of　the　Twelve　Tables　were；　many　of　them；　copied

from　those　of　some　ancient　Greek　republics；　yet　law　never　seems

to　have　grown　up　to　be　a　science　in　any　republic　of　ancient

Greece。　In　Rome　it　became　a　science　very　early；　and　gave　a

considerable　degree　of　illustration　to　those　citizens　who　had　the

reputation　of　understanding　it。　In　the　republics　of　ancient

Greece；　particularly　in　Athens；　the　ordinary　courts　of　justice

consisted　of　numerous；　and　therefore　disorderly；　bodies　of

people；　who　frequently　decided　almost　at　random；　or　as　clamour；

faction；　and　party　spirit　happened　to　determine。　The　ignominy　of

an　unjust　decision；　when　it　was　to　be　divided　among　five　hundred；

a　thousand；　or　fifteen　hundred　people　（for　some　of　their　courts

were　so　very　numerous）；　could　not　fall　very　heavy　upon　any

individual。　At　Rome；　on　the　contrary；　the　principal　courts　of

justice　consisted　either　of　a　single　judge　or　of　a　small　number

of　judges；　whose　characters；　especially　as　they　deliberated

always　in　public；　could　not　fail　to　be　very　much　affected　by　any

rash　or　unjust　decision。　In　doubtful　cases　such　courts；　from

their　anxiety　to　avoid　blame；　would　naturally　endeavour　to

shelter　themselves　under　the　example　or　precedent　of　the　judges

who　had　sat　before　them；　either　in　the　same　or　in　some　other

court。　This　attention　to　practice　and　precedent　necessarily

formed　the　Roman　law　into　that　regular　and　orderly　system　in

which　it　has　been　delivered　down　to　us；　and　the　like　attention

has　had　the　like　effects　upon　the　laws　of　every　other　country

where　such　attention　has　taken　place。　The　superiority　of

character　in　the　Romans　over　that　of　the　Greeks；　so　much　remarked

by　Polybius　and　Dionysius　of　Halicarnassus；　was　probably　more

owing　to　the　better　constitution　of　their　courts　of　justice　than

to　any　of　the　circumstances　to　which　those　authors　ascribe　it。

The　Romans　are　said　to　have　been　particularly　distinguished　for

their　superior　respect　to　an　oath。　But　the　people　who　were

accustomed　to　make　oath　only　before　some　diligent　and

well…informed　court　of　justice　would　naturally　be　much　more

attentive　to　what　they　swore　than　they　who　were　accustomed　to　do

the　same　thing　before　mobbish　and　disorderly　assemblies。

　　　　　The　abilities；　both　civil　and　military；　of　the　Greeks　and

Romans　will　readily　be　allowed　to　have　been　at　least　equal　to

those　of　any　modern　nation。　Our　prejudice　is　perhaps　rather　to

overrate　them。　But　except　in　what　related　to　military　exercises；

the　state　seems　to　have　been　at　no　pains　to　form　those　great

abilities；　for　I　cannot　be　induced　to　believe　that　the　musical

education　of　the　Greeks　could　be　of　much　consequence　in　forming

them。　Masters；　however；　had　been　found；　it　seems；　for　instructing

the　better　sort　of　people　among　those　nations　in　every　art　and

science　in　which　the　circumstances　of　their　society　rendered　it

necessary　or　convenient　for　them　to　be　instructed。　The　demand　for

such　instruction　produced　what　it　always　produces…　the　talent　for

giving　it；　and　the　emulation　which　an　unrestrained　competition

never　fails　to　excite；　appears　to　have　brought　that　talent　to　a

very　high　degree　of　perfection。　In　the　attention　which　the

ancient　philosophers　excited；　in　the　empire　which　they　acquired

over　the　opinions　and　principles　of　their　auditors；　in　the

faculty　which　they　possessed　of　giving　a　certain　tone　and

character　to　the　conduct　and　conversation　of　those　auditors；　they

appear　to　have　been　much　superior　to　any　modern　teachers。　In

modern　times；　the　diligence　of　public　teachers　is　more　or　less

corrupted　by　the　circumstances　which　render　them　more　or　less

independent　of　their　success　and　reputation　in　their　particular

professions。　Their　salaries；　too；　put　the　private　teacher；　who

would　pretend　to　come　into　competition　with　them；　in　the　same

state　with　a　merchant　who　attempts　to　trade　without　a　bounty　in

competition　with　those　who　trade　with　a　considerable　one。　If　he

sells　his　goods　at　nearly　the　same　price；　he　cannot　have　the　same

profit；　and　at　least；　if　not　bankruptcy　and　ruin；　will　infallibly

be　his　lot。　If　he　attempts　to　sell　them　much　dearer；　he　is　likely

to　have　so　few　customers　that　his　circumstances　will　not　be　much

mended。　The　privileges　of　graduation；　besides；　are　in　many

countries　necessary；　or　at　least　extremely　convenient；　to　most

men　of　learned　professions；　that　is；　to　the　far　greater　part　of

those　who　have　occasion　for　a　learned　education。　But　those

privileges　can　be　obtained　only　by　attending　the　lectures　of　the

public　teachers。　The　most　careful　attendance　upon　the　ablest

instructions　of　any　private　teacher　cannot　always　give　any　title

to　demand　them。　It　is　from　these　different　causes　that　the

private　teacher　of　any　of　the　sciences　which　are　commonly　taught

in　universities　is　in　modern　times　generally　considered　as　in　the

very　lowest　order　of　men　of　letters。　A　man　of　real　abilities　can

scarce　find　out　a　more　humiliating　or　a　more　unprofitable

employment　to　turn　them　to。　The　endowment　of　schools　and　colleges

have；　in　this　manner；　not　only　corrupted　the　diligence　of　public

teachers；　but　have　rendered　it　almost　impossible　to　have　any　good

private　ones。

　　　　　Were　there　no　public　institutions　for　education；　no　system；

no　science　would　be　taught　for　which　there　was　not　some　demand；

or　which　the　circumstances　of　the　times　did　not　render　it　either

necessary；　or　convenient；　or　at　least　fashionable；　to　learn。　A

private　teacher　could　never　find　his　account　in　teaching　either

an　exploded　and　antiquated　system　of　a　science　acknowledged　to　be

useful；　or　a　science　universally　believed　to　be　a　mere　useless

and　pedantic　heap　of　sophistry　and　nonsense。　Such　systems；　such

sciences；　can　subsist　nowhere；　but　in　those　incorporated

societies　for　education　whose　prosperity　and　revenue　are　in　a

great　measure　independent　of　their　reputation　and　altogether

independent　of　their　industry。　Were　there　no　public　institutions

for　education；　a　gentleman；　after　going　through　with　application

and　abilities　the　most　complete　course　of　education　which　the

circumstances　of　the　times　were　supposed　to　afford；　could　not

come　into　the　world　completely　ignorant　of　everything　which　is

the　common　subject　of　conversation　among　gentlemen　and　men　of　the

world。

　　　　　There　are　no　public　institutions　for　the　education　of　women；

and　there　is　accordingly　nothing　useless；　absurd；　or　fantastical

in　the　common　course　of　their　education。　They　are　taught　what

their　parents　or　guardians　judge　it　necessary　or　useful　for　them

to　learn；　and　they　are　taught　nothing　else。　Every　part　of　their

education　tends　evidently　to　some　useful　purpose；　either　to

improve　the　natural　attractions　of　their　person；　or　to　form　their

mind　to　reserve；　to　modesty；　to　chastity；　and　to　economy；　to

render　them　both　likely　to　become　the　mistresses　of　a　family；　and

to　behave　properly　when　they　have　become　such。　In　every　part　of

her　life　a　woman　feels　some　conveniency　or　advantage　from　every

part　of　her　education。　It　seldom　happens　that　a　man；　in　any　part

of　his　life；　derives　any　conveniency　or　advantage　from　some　of

t