a history of science-2-第7部分
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hauliac： （born about 1300）； the 〃restorer of surgery。〃 All through the early Middle Ages dissections of human bodies had been forbidden； and even dissection of the lower animals gradually fell into disrepute because physicians detected in such practices were sometimes accused of sorcery。 Before the close of the thirteenth century； however； a reaction had begun； physicians were protected； and dissections were occasionally sanctioned by the ruling monarch。 Thus Emperor Frederick H。 （1194…1250 A。D。）whose services to science we have already had occasion to mentionordered that at least one human body should be dissected by physicians in his kingdom every five years。 By the time of Mondino dissections were becoming more frequent； and he himself is known to have dissected and demonstrated several bodies。 His writings on anatomy have been called merely plagiarisms of Galen； but in all probability be made many discoveries independently； and on the whole； his work may be taken as more advanced than Galen's。 His description of the heart is particularly accurate； and he seems to have come nearer to determining the course of the blood in its circulation than any of his predecessors。 In this quest he was greatly handicapped by the prevailing belief in the idea that blood…vessels must contain air as well as blood； and this led him to assume that one of the cavities of the heart contained 〃spirits；〃 or air。 It is probable； however； that his accurate observations； so far as they went； were helpful stepping…stones to Harvey in his discovery of the circulation。 Guy of Chauliac； whose innovations in surgery reestablished that science on a firm basis； was not only one of the most cultured； but also the most practical surgeon of his time。 He had great reverence for the works of Galen； Albucasis； and others of his noted predecessors； but this reverence did not blind him to their mistakes nor prevent him from using rational methods of treatment far in advance of theirs。 His practicality is shown in some of his simple but useful inventions for the sick…room； such as the device of a rope； suspended from the ceiling over the bed； by which a patient may move himself about more easily； and in some of his improvements in surgical dressings； such as stiffening bandages by dipping them in the white of an egg so that they are held firmly。 He treated broken limbs in the suspended cradle still in use； and introduced the method of making 〃traction〃 on a broken limb by means of a weight and pulley； to prevent deformity through shortening of the member。 He was one of the first physicians to recognize the utility of spectacles； and recommended them in cases not amenable to treatment with lotions and eye…waters。 In some of his surgical operations； such as trephining for fracture of the skull； his technique has been little improved upon even in modern times。 In one of these operations he successfully removed a portion of a man's brain。
Surgery was undoubtedly stimulated greatly at this period by the constant wars。 Lay physicians； as a class； had been looked down upon during the Dark Ages； but with the beginning of the return to rationalism； the services of surgeons on the battle…field； to remove missiles from wounds； and to care for wounds and apply dressings； came to be more fully appreciated。 In return for his labors the surgeon was thus afforded better opportunities for observing wounds and diseases； which led naturally to a gradual improvement in surgical methods。
FIFTEENTH…CENTURY MEDICINE The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries had seen some slight advancement in the science of medicine； at least； certain surgeons and physicians； if not the generality； had made advances； but it was not until the fifteenth century that the general revival of medical learning became assured。 In this movement； naturally； the printing…press played an all…important part。 Medical books； hitherto practically inaccessible to the great mass of physicians； now became common； and this output of reprints of Greek and Arabic treatises revealed the fact that many of the supposed true copies were spurious。 These discoveries very naturally aroused all manner of doubt and criticism； which in turn helped in the development of independent thought。 A certain manuscript of the great Cornelius Celsus； the De Medicine； which had been lost for many centuries； was found in the church of St。 Ambrose； at Milan； in 1443； and was at once put into print。 The effect of the publication of this book； which had lain in hiding for so many centuries； was a revelation； showing the medical profession how far most of their supposed true copies of Celsus had drifted away from the original。 The indisputable authenticity of this manuscript； discovered and vouched for by the man who shortly after became Pope Nicholas V。； made its publication the more impressive。 The output in book form of other authorities followed rapidly； and the manifest discrepancies between such teachers as Celsus； Hippocrates； Galen； and Pliny heightened still more the growing spirit of criticism。 These doubts resulted in great controversies as to the proper treatment of certain diseases； some physicians following Hippocrates； others Galen or Celsus； still others the Arabian masters。 One of the most bitter of these contests was over the question of 〃revulsion；〃 and 〃derivation〃that is； whether in cases of pleurisy treated by bleeding； the venesection should be made at a point distant from the seat of the disease； as held by the 〃revulsionists；〃 or at a point nearer and on the same side of the body； as practised by the 〃derivationists。〃 That any great point for discussion could be raised in the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries on so simple a matter as it seems to…day shows how necessary to the progress of medicine was the discovery of the circulation of the blood made by Harvey two centuries later。 After Harvey's discovery no such discussion could have been possible； because this discovery made it evident that as far as the general effect upon the circulation is concerned； it made little difference whether the bleeding was done near a diseased part or remote from it。 But in the sixteenth century this question was the all…absorbing one among the doctors。 At one time the faculty of Paris condemned 〃derivation〃； but the supporters of this method carried the war still higher； and Emperor Charles V。 himself was appealed to。 He reversed the decision of the Paris faculty； and decided in favor of 〃derivation。〃 His decision was further supported by Pope Clement VII。； although the discussion dragged on until cut short by Harvey's discovery。 But a new form of injury now claimed the attention of the surgeons； something that could be decided by neither Greek nor Arabian authors； as the treatment of gun…shot wounds was； for obvious reasons； not given in their writings。 About this time； also； came the great epidemics； 〃the sweating sickness〃 and scurvy； and upon these subjects； also； the Greeks and Arabians were silent。 John of Vigo； in his book； the Practica Copiosa； published in 1514； and repeated in many editions； became the standard authority on all these subjects； and thus supplanted the works of the ancient writers。 According to Vigo； gun…shot wounds differed from the wounds made by ordinary weaponsthat is； spear； arrow； sword； or axein that the bullet； being round； bruised rather than cut its way through the tissues； it burned the flesh； and； worst of all； it poisoned it。 Vigo laid especial stress upon treating this last condition； recommending the use of the cautery or the oil of elder； boiling hot。 It is little wonder that gun…shot wounds were so likely to prove fatal。 Yet； after all； here was the germ of the idea of antisepsis。
NEW BEGINNINGS IN GENERAL SCIENCE We have dwelt thus at length on the subject of medical science； because it was chiefly in this field that progress was made in the Western world during the mediaeval period； and because these studies furnished the point of departure for the revival all along the line。 It will be understood； however； from what was stated in the preceding chapter； that the Arabian influences in particular were to some extent making themselves felt along other lines。 The opportunity afforded a portion of the Western worldnotably Spain and Sicily to gain access to the scientific ideas of antiquity through Arabic translations could not fail of influence。 Of like character； and perhaps even more pronounced in degree； was the influence wrought by the Byzantine refugees； who； when Constantinople began to be threatened by the Turks； migrated to the West in considerable numbers； bringing with them a knowledge of Greek literature and a large number of precious works which for centuries had been quite forgotten or absolutely ignored in Italy。 Now Western scholars began to take an interest in the Greek language； which had been utterly neglected since the beginning of the Middle Ages。 Interesting stories are told of the efforts made by such men as Cosmo de' Medici to gain possession of classical manuscripts。 The revival of learning thus brought about had its first permanent influence in the fields of literature and art； but its effect on science could not be long delayed。 Quite independently of the Byzantine influence； however； t
